“The Indian caste system is perhaps the most extreme expression of a type of social organization that violates the most revered principles on which modern Western societies are based” (Stearns, et al. 24). This is the opening statement of a World History textbook passage on caste in India. With a self-righteous tone, this sentence indicts the entire Indian civilization and everyone associated with it, including innocent Hindu American students. The rest of the textbook pertaining to India employs bias by the commission to lay the blame for the inequities of the caste system entirely on the shoulders of Hindu civilization. It absolves the major Western colonizers, especially the British, of any blame in the current state of affairs. This is a pattern that repeats itself in other textbooks. However, history and Hindu scriptures paint an entirely different picture.

The Spanish and Portuguese origins of the word “caste” as “casta” are well known. What is less well-known are the European origins of birth-based caste, along with how Europeans imposed these concepts on their colonized peoples, as described by Sumit Guha in his online article. In addition, Hindu scriptures do not contain the word “casta” or any other derivative.

 Las Castas (The Castes), Anonymous.

The above painting was completed in the 18th century and depicts the 16 race-based castes at birth as defined and imposed by Spanish colonizers on the Natives of Mexico. This type of classification was devised prior to British interference with the indigenous social system of India. The idea of caste hierarchy being determined by proximity to the white race was first propagated by the Spanish and later implemented by the British in India. The subordinate status of Spanish women as compared to Spanish men can be concluded from the more limited marital options available to women, as shown in the painting.

At the time of the Spanish caste system’s development, Indian society was following a very different social order. Amongst the Vedas, which are the primary scriptures of Hinduism and are believed to hold true regardless of era or geography, the only kind of social structure that was mentioned pertained to the four “varnas.” The term “varna” referred to the four qualities or functions that were found in society: priests/scholars, rulers/administrators, merchants/farmers, and artisans/laborers. The Purusha Sukta contains the following hymn:

brā̠hma̠ṇō̎sya̠ mukha̍māsīt । bā̠hū rā̍ja̠nya̍ḥ kṛ̠taḥ ।
ū̠rū tada̍sya̠ yadvaiśya̍ḥ । pa̠dbhyāgṃ śū̠drō a̍jāyataḥ ॥

From His mouth came forth the Brahmins and from His arms were Rajanya made
From His thighs came the Vaishyas and His feet gave birth to Sudras.
(Rigveda 10.90.12)

Even though the above hymn is not referring to a hierarchy between the four varnas, the fallacy of a hierarchical varna system has gained widespread traction in today’s literature. In reality, the varnas represent the four parallel pillars of a holistic society. In Hindu thought, the entirety of existence is described as the manifestation of God, or Purusha. As God, or Purusha, is One, no part of Purusha can be considered higher or lower. Therefore, one varna is not considered higher or lower than another. Also worth noting is that Purusha is frequently taken to mean Lord Vishnu, who is oftentimes depicted in a reclining pose, with no part of his body higher or lower than the other. The hierarchy misconception can be refuted even further if one examines the next two verses from the Purusha Sukta in the Rig Veda:

cha̠ndramā̠ mana̍sō jā̠taḥ । chakṣō̠ḥ sūryō̍ ajāyata ।
mukhā̠dindra̍śchā̠gniścha̍ । prā̠ṇādvā̠yura̍jāyata ॥

nābhyā̍ āsīda̠ntari̍kṣam । śī̠rṣṇō dyauḥ sama̍vartata ।
pa̠dbhyāṃ bhūmi̠rdiśa̠ḥ śrōtrā̎t । tathā̍ lō̠kāgṃ a̍kalpayan ॥

From His mind the Moon was born, from His eyes was born the Sun

From His mouth, Indra and Agni, and from His life-breath was born Vayu

Space unfolds from His navel, the sky well-formed from His head

From His feet, the earth, and His ears the Quarters.

(Rigveda 10.90.13-14)

 If the Purusha Suktam referred to a hierarchy of the varnas, then, by the same logic, the Moon must be considered higher than the Sun, and space must be considered lower than the sky. Such nonsensical reasoning can be rejected, leading us to the conclusion that the Vedas do not recognize any sort of hierarchy in society. Instead, the varnas refer to psychological groupings of people based on their temperaments and qualities. These groupings achieve goals similar to that of today’s personality tests when they are used to predict what types of occupations may best suit a given individual. It is important to note that there are many examples of people having moved between varnas.

Another term that is native to Indian civilization and is mistakenly conflated with the caste system is “jati.” Unlike “varna,” the term “jati” is not found in Hindu scriptures. “Jati” typically refers to an endogamous community where a specific profession is often passed down in a hereditary fashion. Sharma quotes P.V. Kane in explaining how the jatis came into existence: “ …[jatis] arose from the unions of males of different varnas with women belonging to varnas differing from their own” (130). Sharma later calls out an important distinction between the traditional Indian concept of jati versus the modern Western misunderstanding of where jatis reside in the social fabric. In the traditional Indian view, jatis were formed outside of the traditional varnas. Jatis were formed to accommodate all of the different combinations of people in society that were derived from the original four varnas. The following figure depicts some of the many possible jatis that formed from the unions of the different varnas in succeeding generations:

Figure 1: Varna-Jati Relationship Prior to British Intervention

One can easily observe that over thousands of years, over many generations, and countless combinations resulting in thousands of different jatis, there was no way to create a definitive hierarchical order of jatis in pre-British Indian society. This indeed was the case, where the fluidity of movement between jatis and fluidity of jati status existed. Kane further describes this fluidity when he writes “Therefore, it must be admitted that the …social status of the several castes [ie. jatis] might have varied from country to country or from epoch to epoch…” (Sharma 130). Although there was jockeying for position within the larger society by the various jatis, there was no authority that dictated a jati’s social position. 

However, the situation drastically changed when the British gained power in India and they socially engineered the creation of the modern caste system. Sharma describes how the British administrators chose to think of the jatis as being contained within the varnas, as shown in the figure below:

Figure 2: Varna-Jati Relationship After British Intervention

Using the British methodology, each jati now had to understand itself in relation to the varnas. With a clear hierarchical structure, it was in each jati’s interest to be viewed as high as possible in the pyramid. Force-fitting the entirety of Indian society into a neat pyramid satisfied the British thirst for order and categorization, resulting in what they called the “caste system.” 

In their article, Walby and Haan describe how nineteenth-century Europeans felt a need to make sense of the world by classifying everything neatly into categories and then ordering them. Foucault proposed the creation of hierarchical taxonomies that would allow scholars to produce “truth,” or to reach conclusions about populations under study. 

The problem was that in India, many British census takers and data compilers ran into great difficulties when it came to reaching a neatly categorized and hierarchical view of nationwide caste data. During the British censuses of India, “…many people were reported to not know their caste, to claim they had no caste, or to provide a caste name to enumerators [census takers] when they should not have had one (as was the case for Christians and Muslims)” (Walby & Haan 304). They further describe that one of the ways for census takers to overcome these difficulties was “often through fudging the process” (304). Another commonly employed tactic, of which there is much evidence, is that castes were frequently fabricated. By doing so, British census takers and administrators not only created a new pecking order for the vast diversity of jatis in Indian society, but they also fossilized this pecking order in official government publications with the completion of each census. 

What before British rule had been an informal and fluid system of families and clans moving between different varnas and even jatis was hardened, with social hierarchy given official sanction by the colonizers. There are countless examples of jatis appealing to British officials to reassign their community to a higher status. These officials, and their census publications, became the ultimate judge of a jati’s stature in society.

ML Middleton, Superintendent of the Government of India, wrote the following in the 1911 census: “…we pigeon-holed everyone by castes and if we could not find a true caste for them labeled them with the name of a hereditary occupation…we are largely responsible for the [caste] system which we deplore.” (343)

Middleton further went on to speculate as to what may have happened if the British had not extensively tinkered with the indigenous system: “Left to themselves, such castes…would rapidly disappear and no one would suffer. The large number of people who have refused to record any caste at this census is a sign of progress and the breaking of customary bonds..[the British] Government’s passion for labels and pigeon-holes has led to a crystallization of the caste system, which, except amongst the aristocratic castes was really very fluid under indigenous rule” (343).

Aside from the European preoccupation with hierarchical categorization, there was another phenomenon at work that was even more pernicious. It was the nineteenth-century theory of race, which used pseudo-science in the form of anthropometric measurements to pin each race into a hierarchical order. Europeans considered the white race to be the most superior of the races, and they used this racial theory to justify the colonization and exploitation of other races around the world. In regards to the caste system, H.H. Risley reformulated caste along racial lines when he architected the 1901 Census of India. “Risley argued that caste was a system of social precedence deriving from a race-based hierarchy of social life” (Carlan). Risley used two anthropometric ratios to help him determine his social hierarchy based on race. The first was the nasal index, which was the ratio of the height to the width of the nose. The second was the cephalic index, which was the ratio of the length to the width of the head.

The British concoction of the modern caste system in India would change India forever, dividing its population against itself. Artificial racial boundaries of “Aryan” (ie. light-skinned) and “Dravidian” (ie. dark-skinned) were imposed on the native population, creating and shaping political movements that otherwise would never have existed. In addition to these effects, the modern caste system provided the British with yet another tool: the ability to deride Hinduism as the source of caste inequality and to position Christianity as a better alternative. Even though the caste system exists in other Indian religious communities such as Sikhism, Jainism, Christianity, and Islam, the British successfully perpetrated the “casteism in Hinduism” trope throughout the West, leaving this as another marker of their colonial legacy.

That is why in Social Studies textbooks today, the lens of caste is simplistically used to explain almost everything about Hinduism and Indian history: “What gave Indian civilization a recognizable identity and character was…a unique social organization, the caste system” (Strayer and Nelson 125). The same book later claims that the caste system prevented pan-India empires from surviving for any length of time. The book’s obsession with caste is evident throughout its coverage of India and Hinduism, eventually tying a person’s caste to their spiritual progress. The authors neglect to discuss any Hindu saints who belonged to the so-called lower castes. And not once is there any mention of the British intervention that produced the caste system as we know it today.

As another example, another textbook states that “…the caste system continued to serve as the most powerful organizing feature of Indian society” (Bentley, et al 318). A few pages later, this statement appears: “Caste distinctions first became prominent in northern India following [white] Aryan migrations into the subcontinent” (323). Thus, the book successfully promotes the superimposition of race onto caste, as envisioned by Risley and others over a hundred years ago. The false association between the so-called Aryans, Hinduism, and the caste system is something that is still pervasive in modern textbooks, an anachronism that has managed to outlive British rule in India.

        Books such as these are not purveyors of World History or World Cultures. They are purveyors of Hinduphobia.

Textbooks such as these come with real-world consequences. When the caste system is falsely tied to Hinduism as one of its defining characteristics, entire generations of Americans, both Hindus, and non-Hindus, walk out of the classroom with ingrained prejudices. The Hindu American Foundation published a report concluding that there is “a correlation between the intensity with which a school’s Hinduism unit focuses on caste and the likelihood both that the child will perceive that Hinduism has been taught negatively and that she/he will be bullied for her/his faith…” (HAF 6). The report goes on to suggest that when “an intense curricular focus on caste creates and reinforces a view of Hindu beliefs as uniquely repellant, it is the curriculum itself that needs to be reexamined” (6).

In conclusion, we find the lived reality of Hindu Americans to be at odds with the artificial reality found in Social Studies textbooks. No Hindu temple teaches its congregation about caste or any kind of social hierarchy. Many Hindu American children are not even aware of their caste affiliation. The colonial-era narrative that persists to this day in American textbooks insists that the hierarchical caste system is a fundamental part of Hinduism. This essay has attempted to point out that nothing could be further from the truth. With that being said, caste-based discrimination found in all of the religious communities in India must be eliminated because it is a social evil. When it comes to Hinduism, there is no room for this discrimination, or for any type of discrimination, in a faith community that recognizes each human being as divine. It is time for the narrative around caste and Hinduism to be rectified, especially in Social Studies textbooks for American students. 

This article is an adaptation of a term paper required for the course “Reconstructing Hindu History: The Commissions,” taught by Dr. Raj Vedam.

References

Anonymous. Las Castas. 19th century. Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico. Wikipedia, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta. Accessed 6 June 2021.

Bentley, Jerry H., et al. Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past, UPDATED AP Edition. 6^th ed., McGraw Hill, 2020.

Carlan, Hannah. “Sir Herbert Hope Risley.” southasia.ucla.edu/history-politics/colonialepistemologies/sir-  herbert-hope-risley/. Accessed 8 June 2021.

Guha, Sumit. “What Did Europeans Contribute to the Caste System in India?” www.jhiblog.org/2018/05/30/what-did-europeans-contribute-to-the-caste-system-in-india. Accessed 6 June 2021.

Hindu American Foundation. “Caste in the Curriculum & the Bullying of Hindu Students: Secondary Analysis of Survey Results.” www.hinduamerican.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/HAFN_16_018- CasteInCurriculumReport_r2_0.pdf. Accessed 5 June 2021.

Middleton, L. and S.M. Jacob. Census of India, 1921. Volume XV, Punjab, and Delhi, Part 1. Civil
and Military – Gazette, 1923.

Sharma, Arvind. The Ruler’s Gaze: A Study of British Rule over India from a Saidian Perspective. HarperCollins Publishers India, 2017.

Stearns, Peter N., et al. World Civilizations: The Global Experience Since 1200, AP Edition. 8^th ed., Pearson, 2020. 

Strayer, Robert W., and Eric W. Nelson. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources. 4^th ed., Bedford, Freeman & Worth, 2020.

Walby, Kevin and Michael Haan. “Caste Confusion and Census Enumeration in Colonial India, 1871–1921.”  Histoire Sociale/Social History, vol. 45, no. 90, 2012, pp. 301–318., doi:10.1353/his.2012.0026.

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Yagña

What is Yagña?

In Yoga, yagña explains every microcosm reflects the macrocosm, which means harmony must exist within and this can nurture harmony with everything around us. A cooperative enterprise that brings things together is called yagña. Truly, with all complex systems in nature, well-being emerges from coordination – not competition – among  the constituent parts. 

A Family is a good example of yagña. The husband wants the best for his wife. The wife wants the best for her husband and together they want the best for their children. Each reaches the heights of respective success by supporting one another and being in harmony.

Body is another example of yagña. Each component, be it an organ or faculty, serves not for its own glorification but to uplift the whole through synergy. Just as eyes guide feet and hands clear obstacles for smoother passage, so too must mind and body communicate as allies. Only through such cooperation does one thrive; alone, each risks atrophy. 

Mother Earth is also in yagña constantly. This blessed Earth nurtures all beings equally, making no distinction – for all are Her children. And in Her perfection, not a single form lacks purpose. Nothing in this universe is redundant or going to waste. From the minute fungi to the giant shark everything has its place and beauty to the universe. Mother Earth is in constant yagna and provides beauty, nourishment, oxygen, places to live, places to travel, and things to build.

Then how do we resolve discord?

Some see differences as reasons for discord, wisdom knows our shared hopes far outweigh all else. Though paths may vary, destinations need not divide if we lift each other to our highest rather than judge from below. With compassion as compass, solutions arise and problems disappear. Understanding that in uplifting ‘others’, we uplift ourselves to spur each to build bridges. For when each Jīvātma recognizes itself as inextricable from the collective family of existence, self-interest gives way to shared wellbeing. In such a system, serving others arises not from duty but joy – for their joy is our joy, their growth our growth. With compassion, communities thrive organically as extended families, where each member’s brilliance nourishes all in turn. And no burden weighs heavy when borne together through understanding that in uplifting another.

When in yagña, every individual holds significance and plays a vital role. In the natural world, most beings have learned to coexist harmoniously, except for human beings. Unlike a tiger, which hunts solely for survival and sustenance, humans are unique in their tendency to harm and destroy one another for personal gain. True success cannot be measured by material wealth acquired through deceit, exploitation, or the destruction of others. If one gains riches by hoarding money obtained from others, it does not equate to success. Unfortunately, many fail to realize that these actions go against the principles of universal harmony and the interconnectedness of all beings. As human beings, it is essential for us to reflect upon our actions and strive for a harmonious existence. We must recognize the value of empathy, compassion, and cooperation in fostering a society where success is measured not by personal gain, but by the well-being and harmony of all individuals. By disregarding the concept of the yagña, or collective well-being, we ultimately bring harm upon ourselves. It is only through collective effort and a shift in mindset that we can create a future where our actions align with the principles of universal harmony or yagna and ensure the well-being of both us and the planet.

How can you start engaging in yagña today?

Help communities grow. Participate in group yoga and group meditation activities. Avoid fostering any business or commodity that supports mistrust or lies or cheating. Kīrtana is yagña and even Havan is yagña. Support your fellow beings in nurturing their yagña. Together build a collective karma towards a marvelous future one that includes your success as well as others.

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This is a two part blog. The first part was published here – Adhikara Sadhaka. 

The Significance of Antaḥkaraṇa Śuddhi in the Pursuit of Mokṣa.

For a mumukṣu or seeker of Brahman, stabilizing the material body is necessary for success on the path to realization. Without a healthy body, neither the focus nor commitment required to pursue this parā vidya or the highest knowledge is possible. In fact, the Upanishads advocate the physical strength and health of the sharīra as prerequisites for study. But, once the physical body is stabilized, the subtle body must also be made steady. Higher elevation, purpose, and awareness come only through the advancement of the subtle body.

A significant component of the subtle body is the antaḥkaraṇa. Commonly simplified to mean “the mind,” antaḥkaraṇa comes from the Sanskrit compound: “antar,” meaning interior or within, and “karaṇa,” meaning sense organ or cause. Therefore, antaḥkaraṇa is the inner cause or internal organ that controls the entire psychological process, including emotions.

The antaḥkaraṇa is constituted of four psychological faculties:

• Manas – the mind
• Buddhi – the intellect
• Ahaṃkāra – the ego
• Citta – memory

“Shuddhi” translates from Sanskrit to mean purification or freedom from defilement. Therefore, antaḥkaraṇa śuddhi means cleansing the inner organ (by removing unregulated sense desires) and preventing further desecration.

How has the Antaḥkaraṇa become impure?

Yama explains:

“अन्यच्छ्रेयोऽन्यदुतैव प्रेय- स्ते उभे नानार्थे पुरुषँ सिनीतः ।
तयोः श्रेय आददानस्य साधु भवति हीयतेऽर्थाद्य उ प्रेयो वृणीते ॥ 

anyacchreyo anyad utaiva preyaste ubhe nānārthe puruṣam sinītah tayọh śreya ādadānasya sādhu bhavati, hīyate rthad ya u preyovṛnīte

Different is the good, and different indeed is pleasant. These two, with different purposes, bind a man. Of these two, it is well for him who takes hold of the good, but he who chooses the pleasant fails of his aim.”

~ Kathopanishad 1.2.1

The physical body, directed by the subtle body, chases the world of sensual pleasures (the pleasant.) Jīvas, who, through avidya, identify as the śarīra (body,) have become bound by the pursuit of fleeting perceptions of pleasure^[1] associated with the śarira and the jagat. But the enjoyment of the phenomenal is transient, and due to the law of diminishing returns, consumption results in decreased satisfaction. And so, the more we consume, the less “happiness” it brings, resulting in more abundant and intense stimulation being sought. This sullies the antahkaraṇa and further entangles the jīva in a web of sense desires. Consequently, the jīva does not find an apparent escape from saṃsāra to mokṣa.

How does one attain Antaḥkaraṇa Śuddhi?

Descartes said, “I think therefore I am.”  However, vedānta advocates that existence precedes thought. By understanding the four functions of the antaḥkaraṇa, the seeker becomes more conscious of what is happening within his internal organ and what drives his behaviors.

How the Antaḥkaraṇa works

1. The Manas: The mind is the seat of desire which controls will or resolution (saṃkalpa). It interacts with the senses and receives external stimuli. Due to saṃskāras developed and strengthened over many lifetimes, the manas decides whether an experience is desirable (rāga) or displeasing (dveṣa.)  The manas sends the information about the experiences to the buddhi for processing.
2. The Buddhi: The buddhi is the intellect that uses the power of discrimination (viveka) to express rational control over decision-making. A reciprocal relationship exists between viveka and parā-vidya. The ability to differentiate between the real and unreal, permanent, and temporary, self and other-than-self comes from knowledge. Conversely, the greater the knowledge, the stronger the power of viveka.
3. The Ahaṃkāra: “Aham” means I, and “kāra” means to do with. The ahaṃkāra, which results from avidya, causes the Ātma (Self) to identify with the body as “I”—the doer. It builds a unique sense of identity, separating Ātma from Paramātma. Once the ahamkāra takes on an independent individuality (ego) and sense of “I-ness,” the buddhi is subjected to that identity and functions only in that context.
4. The Citta: The citta is the higher mind or consciousness that acts as the storehouse of the jīva’s karmas and samskāras over lifetimes and carries their imprints from birth to birth. This build-up of impressions on the mind prevents the self from perceiving anything in its true state—even its own self. To overcome this ignorance, it is necessary to cleanse the citta.

The buddhi receives the information from the manas and analyzes it using reasoning, allowing a choice to be made rather than simply responding to the experience. The manas and buddhi’s continuous activity is choosing between the right, the good, and the pleasant^[2]. When the buddhi becomes silent, there is no viveka or discrimination.

The sensual desire-driven manas and ahamkāra work together to circumvent the buddhi and guide our actions towards sense-enjoyment that strengthen saṃskāras and reinforce a separate sense of identity.

Reshaping the Antaḥkaraṇa Shuddhi = Untying Knots

We are told that the antaḥkaraṇa resides within the heart. The Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad speaks about the knots we tie within the heart.

We’re all often in the process of tying knots^[3] through saṃskāras. When the sense organs encounter sense objects, an experience is created, and there is a reaction in the manas. This includes likes, dislikes, frustration, sorrow, anger, fear, insecurity, loneliness, etc. The response toward our experiences defines the knots of our hearts, including the rāga-dveṣas, sukha (happiness), and duḥkha (sorrow). Knots become tighter by repeating the experiences and our reactions. The continuous pursuit of rāgas and avoidance of dveṣas keeps the manas preoccupied with the senses, unable to fix its aspirations for higher goals.

The knots of our saṃskāras must be acknowledged and observed before we can deal with them. This happens through meditation and contemplation, removing the mind from the chaos of the external world and going into stillness and silence. It is only then that we can observe the mind and move beyond the mind.

To untie the knots, one must reign in the senses and reduce the repetition of desire-driven karmas, as that is the root of the creation of saṃskāras. The ignorance of the ahaṃkāra must be removed, allowing the seeker to see things the way they are.

Understanding that one has the choice to exercise discrimination due to managing the faculties of the antaḥkaraṇa is the empowerment that the seeker needs to begin his ascent out of saṃsāra. Rather than acting mechanically as though programmed by saṃskāras and unaware of his role in building these samskāras, the vijñānavān^[4] applies his discriminating intellect and holds himself accountable through knowledge of the antaḥkaraṇa. He directs the intellect to move the manas away from pursuing sensual pleasures. This reduces the ego and eventually dissolves the sense of identity through knowledge of the Self. The seeker can understand the cause of undesirable personality traits, rāgas, dweṣas, fears, and compulsions and intercept and influence them. In so doing, he becomes mindful that he is not the body, nor the (functions of the) mind, but rather, the Sākṣi or witness—the one who is aware of them. He becomes a samanaska or one endowed with a controlled mind.

यस्तु विज्ञानवान्भवति समनस्कः सदा शुचिः ।
स तु तत्पदमाप्नोति यस्माद्भूयो न जायते ॥ 

yas tu vijñānavān bhavati samanaskaḥ sadā śuci sa tu tat padam āpnoti yasmāt bhūyo na jāyate

That (master of the chariot), however, who is associated with a discriminating intellect, and being endowed with a controlled mind, is ever pure and attains that goal from which he is not born again.

~ Kathopanishad 1.3.8)

As avidyā is overcome by knowledge of the Self, the antaḥkaraṇa is purified by meditation and contemplation through which the subtle body progresses. This purification prepares the self for the knowledge of Brahman without distraction or deviation. The association of the intellect with the mind and the sense organs is harmonious and self-restrained. The sādhaka, who has a clean, pure, and developed antaḥkaraṇa, and whose mind is unpolluted and concentrated, does not need to go towards sense-gratification from external stimuli but turns inward to his heart for the full experience of Brahman.

[1] Bhagavad Gita 2.14 describes how fleeting perceptions of happiness and distress arise from contact between the sense organs and sense objects.

[2] Kathopanishad 1.2.2

[3] Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.9 references the knots of the heart

[4] Kathopanishad 1.3.6

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Crow’s Teeth

Now that you are reading, I assume the title ‘Crow’s Teeth’ piqued your interest. Birds do not have teeth, at least the modern ones, and crows, for sure, do not have them. So, what is the phrase doing as a title in a HUA blog? The term is referenced in two texts – Nyāya Mañjarī and Āyurveda Dīpikā. There is not much to this amusing term other than that these texts say investigating crow’s teeth is a superficial and uninteresting endeavor. These texts emphasize the importance of communicating the utility of the subject of a discourse lucidly. By discourse I mean written work like treatises and verbal work like expositions.

Nyāya Mañjarī is viewed as an independent work on Nyāya philosophy written in the 10^th century (CE). Jayanta Bhaṭṭa, the author, was a poet, logician, scholar, and adviser to Kashmiri King Śaṅkara Varman of the Utpala dynasty. Though the work is independent, Jayanta based it on Nyāya Sūtra of ṛṣi Akṣapāda by selecting important topics and defending the essential features of the philosophy. Jayanta’s other prominent contribution to the world of Indian Knowledge Systems is his commentary on ṛṣi Pāṇini’s Ashtādhyāyī – a treatise on Sanskṛt grammar. While defending ṛṣi Akṣapāda, Jayanta uses the phrase crow’s teeth. J.V. Bhattacharya, in his translation (see references below) translates the words of Jayanta as follows (page 10):

Even a sentence which conveys sense, having its constituent words mutually connected, should be rejected as worthless if it answers no purpose like the following interrogatory one: “Are the teeth of crow good or bad?”

Āyurveda Dīpikā is an authoritative commentary on Caraka Saṁhitā written in the 11^th century. Cakrpāṇi Datta, who authored the text, was an Āyurvedic practitioner and scholar from the Bengal region of India. Caraka Saṁhitā by Agniveśa, Suśruta Saṁhitā by Suśruta, and Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya of Vāgbhaṭa are recognized as Bṛhat-Trayi – the “Great Trio” of Āyurvedic texts. Cakrpāṇi, in his commentary, supplied grammatical, philosophical, and syntactic interpretations of complicated and technical terms (Sharma, R.K. and Dash, Bhagwan, page xl). In addition, Cakrpāṇi justified the arrangement of sections, chapters, and even statements in the chapters. The phrase Crow’s Teeth becomes relevant in this context. Sharma and Bhagwan, in their translations (see references below) translate Cakrpāṇi’s words as:

Intelligent people are not motivated towards (the study of) something indistinct like “ka,” ca,” “ta,” “pa,” etc., nor even towards something distinct but useless examination of the teeth of a crow.” (page 4)

As I pointed out earlier, the phrase “Crow’s Teeth” itself is unimportant. The point driven by both Cakrpāṇi and Jayanta – subject, object, and treatise relationship and that is the significant idea of this blog. Vedantasāra, another text succinctly captures this relationship as anubandha catuṣṭaya. 

Jayanta’s point

Jayanta delivers a stunning technical explanation of Akṣapāda’s first Nyāya Sūtra. The sutra goes as:

        pramāṇa-prameya- saṅśaya -prayojana-dṛṣṭānta-siddhāntāvayava-
        tarka-nirṇaya-vāda-jalpa-vitaṇḍā-hetvābhāsa-cchalajāti-
        nigrahasthānānāṃ tattvajñānān niḥśreyasādhigamaḥ. [1.1.1]

It is the knowledge of the real essence (or true character) of the following sixteen categories that leads to the attainment of the Highest Good – 1) The means of Right Cognition, 2) The objects of the Right Cognition, 3) Doubt, 4) Motive, 5) Example, 6) Theory, 7) Factors of Inference, 8) Cognition, 9) Demonstrated Truth, 10), Discussion, 11) Disputation, 12) Wrangling, 13) Fallacious Reason, 14) Casuistry 15) Futile Rejoinder and 16) Clinchers [Mahāmahopādhyāya Gaṅganatha Jhā translation]

He raises questions for potential objectors and answers them with a flourish. He devotes time to the purpose and effectiveness of the first sentence and general openings of a treatise.

He drives the point that to encourage the listeners of a treatise, it is essential to lay out the subject, broad divisions of the content, and the end goals at the beginning of any written work. He sees that scholars would not consent to hearing something if they were not informed of the broad outline of the subject, as the utility of hearing the treatise remains unknown.

Having introduced that the utility of a treatise is an important motivator for the listeners, Jayanta tries to answer how to prove that utility at the beginning. Jayanta questions the notion whether a mere statement of the utility of a treatise is a good enough motivator. He points out the problem that to know the utility of a discourse, we need to listen to it but to read the treatise, we should first understand its utility. He concludes that the first sentence of a treatise informs the listener about its utility, motivating him to listen to the whole treatise. Jayanta dives into the psychological condition of the listener or reader, who only partially accepts the utility, by saying that there might be doubt of the validity of the proposed utility. However, their mind is convinced to study the treatise to confirm the author’s exposition. He further sees that humans tend to pursue an activity destined to yield positive outcomes that are easy to perform. If the positive result is achievable, intelligent humans will figure it out within a few days.

Jayanta cautions us on the futility of scrutinizing the results before the action has been performed as such a preemptive tendency impedes progress to understanding. This might sound familiar with modern phrase analysis paralysis. He adds an analogy of how a sick person should not doubt the prescriptions given by a physician and the harm of following instructions. He concludes that the learner, having read the utility, should devote his best attention and sincerity to studying the explained subject before deciding on its usefulness.

Jayanta highlights the importance of the first sentence of a treatise saying the purpose or usefulness in a meaningful way. In this context, he brings up the useless characteristic of the question, “Are the teeth of a crow good or bad?” Jayanta believes the first sentence should attract listeners or readers and silence hostile critics. His conviction is that the first sentence can create the necessary doubt in the mind of the listeners or readers to explore the topic and find for themselves if the author was correct.

He summarizes that it is essential to tell the relationship between the treatise and its content, between the content and the results.

Cakrpāṇi’s point

Cakrpāṇi is commenting on the first verse of the first chapter, Dīrgha Jīvatīyam – (Quest for Longevity) of Caraka Saṁhitā. He explains that Caraka, to make it easy for the readers, brought in the subject, object, and relationship as stimuli for the readers. He adds that intelligent people are unmotivated to study something like the Sanskṛt alphabet. Sanskṛt consonants are arranged in rows called Varga, and each row is affixed a label based on the starting alphabet in that row. Next, he points out that intelligent people are not interested in a useless examination of a crow’s teeth.

Cakrpāṇi deems it necessary to specify the subject and object of a treatise at the beginning because if the relationship were not stated, it does not stimulate a learner. Cakrpāṇi contends that the above relationship is conveyed by the phrase “Dīrgha Jīvatīyam” and that Caraka elaborates on it later in the text. He considers the motivator “usefulness” for the treatise as motivating for its learners to study. He contends that mere enumeration of the object does not yield the treatise learner to learn its usefulness. He chastises some works where the author lists the objects but does not deliver on the promise. The author’s credibility alone does not suffice because the learner might be unable to discern the credibility. This leads to a circular problem similar to how Jayanta had described the issue – that a learner will not be attracted to a treatise without knowing its usefulness, and the effectiveness of the treatise cannot be decided unless the learner is drawn to the treatise and studies it.

Cakrpāṇi, so then, arrives at the next motivator, “doubt,” that could attract the learner to the treatise. There are two types of doubts, he goes on to say – a general doubt on the effectiveness of the treatise and another about the specific object of study. He drops the former type of doubt as less motivating than the latter and he does not provide supporting reasons for that perspective. Nevertheless, one can reasonably assume it is because the human mind is better able to understand specific and concrete objects and relationships than general ones.

Cakrpāṇi concludes that telling the utility of the treatise via its relationships is more accessible for its learners to understand and start studying it.

Vedantasāra

I have not encountered the phrase “crow’s teeth” in my other reading. However, the concept of saying the subject, connection of the topic to the treatise, and utility or necessity appears in other works and we can examine this concept in Vedantasāra.

Vedantasāra is a well-known Prakaraṇa Grantha on Advaita philosophy from the 15th century. It was composed by Sadānanda Yogīndra Sarasvatī and it is a revered text that follows traditional pedagogical methods.

Right at the beginning of the work, in verse five, Sadānanda introduces the concept of Anubandha. The verse is:

tatra anubandho nāma adhikāri viṣya saṁbandaprayojanāni [verse 5]

The preliminary questions of Vedanta are the determination of the competency of the student, the subject matter, its connection with the book and the necessity for its study [Swāmī Nikhilānanda translation].

Anubandha has four components: the qualification of a student, subject matter, connection of the subject with the treatise, and the necessity of the treatise. This is popularly known as anubandha catuṣṭaya and can be depicted as below.

Conclusion

We can apply these concepts to any formal discourse or writing. It is essential to clearly state the subject and end results to create an interest in the reader. Apart from increasing this curiosity, this framework which was analyzed and developed by our ancestors, encourages the author to be reflective and use rigor. In an information dissemination format such as this blog, a seemingly irrelevant phrase hook “crow’s teeth” would suffice for the readers to begin reading

References

English translations of all the texts were consulted for this writing and where it was critical, the original Sanskṛt texts were also studied to ensure correctness in meaning and interpretation.

1. Caraka Saṁhitā by Agnivesa (redacted by Carka and Dṛḍhabala)
2. Nyāya Mañjarī by Jayanta Bhaṭṭa
3. Vedantasāra by Sadānanda Yogīndra

Translations

1. Sharma, R.K and Dash, Bhagwan, Caraka Saṁhitā [Text with English translation & critical exposition based on Cakrpāṇi Datta’s Āyurveda Dīpikā ], Vol I, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 2023
2. Bhattacharya, Janaki Vallabha, Jayanta Bhaṭṭa’s Nyāya Mañjarī [The Compendium of Indian Speculative Logic], Motilal Banarsi Dass, New Delhi, 1978
3. Swāmī Nikhilānanda, Vedantasāra (The Essence of Vedanta) of Sadānanda Yogīndra, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2021
4. Jha, Mahāmahopādhyāya Gaṅgānātha, Gautama’s Nyāya Sūtras [with Vātsyāyana Bhāṣya], Oriental Book Agency (Poona, 1939)

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Is the Bhagavad Gita solely a manual for spiritual living? Are the Upanishads and other scriptures just esoteric readings? Can we derive leadership principles from Hindu scriptures to teach and guide us in our everyday corporate or professional lives? In an increasingly complex world faced with maniacal “celebrity” superstar promoters at one end of the employment spectrum to “quietly quitting” colleagues/team members at the other end, can we draw upon the sagacious wisdom contained in our ancient scriptures to help us operate and function optimally in the business world? In addition to our carefully developed resources of intelligence quotient (IQ) and emotional quotient (EQ), can we also build upon our “consciousness” quotient (CQ)?

Leadership Principles From Hindu Scriptures

A Personal Dilemma 

As a finance professional working in corporate India, I have personally reflected on methods—empathetic but still effective—to garner the enthusiasm and support of my team members during trying business times. At other moments, I have been anxiously searching for answers to persuade peers in management to align with wider corporate goals that are sustainable in the long run in contrast to narrow short-term departmental goals.

A leader is influenced by the culture he or she is born in; the nuances of his or her culture will shape the leadership role and style. Rather than blindly copying an aggressive Western management style, I constantly wondered if there was an alternative approach to leadership—one that was more rooted in the Hindu culture. 

In my intrepid search, I was delighted to read a scholarly document authored by Shriram Sarvotham from the study material shared by the HUA in the course “Orientation to Hindu Studies.” This enlightening essay is sourced from the book whose title says it succinctly: “Inclusive Leadership – Perspectives from Tradition and Modernity”.

Shriram Sarvotham states that Yogic wisdom from authoritative yoga texts enunciates systematic methods to cultivate fundamental leadership attributes. His specific references to Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and the Upanishads inspire wonder at the deep levels of practical wisdom that abound in the Hindu culture.

The author starts with the premise that the fundamental trait of a leader is his or her ability to influence people in their thoughts, words, and actions. The leader’s persuasive power inspires people to take action towards the chosen ideals, goals, and objectives. The art of persuasion has three distinct attributes namely, satyam (appeal to one’s credibility), yukti (appeal to the intellect) and karuna (appeal to the emotions). In the Indian tradition, Yogic wisdom from authoritative yoga texts such as Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras enunciates systematic methods to cultivate these triune attributes of satyam, yukti, and karuna.

Satyam: the inner work

Satyam is the power that comes from personal ethics and the pursuit of excellence. Satyam provides credibility to the leader and creates an aura of powerful presence. The words of one who has cultivated satyam carry enormous weight. They have the power to deeply influence people.

Maharishi Patanjali states:
सत्यप्रतिष्ठायां क्रियाफलाश्रयत्वम् ॥
satya pratiṣṭhāyāṃ kriyā phalāśrayatvam
For one who is established in truth, their vision becomes manifest
(Yoga Sutra, 2.36)

“Speak Truth to Power” is an oft-repeated quote—a maxim that resonated deeply within me. As the financial head of an organization, I internalized this maxim—particularly when reporting financial details and results to shareholders and stakeholders.

The author expands on the meaning of satyam as being much more than speaking truthfully; it refers to the core ethical value of integrity. A leader can claim to be true to their ideals only by integrating them into their own lives and by living them. In addition to gaining the power to manifest a vision as stated by Patanjali, living a life of satyam accrues credibility. Others trust the words and actions of the leader once the credibility is firmly established.

In short, living the highest, most excellent version of oneself builds satyam.

Yukti: clarity of perception and expression

Yukti is the appeal to logic. Yukti builds a cogent, coherent, and clear flow of ideas that convince the intellect. Before articulating these ideas to others, a leader must convince himself or herself first. In the Yoga Sutras, Maharishi Patanjali provides the analogy of a flawless crystal (abhijātasyeva mani [Yoga Sutra, 1.41])—as a metaphor to depict the state of mind of a yogi.

The author states that oftentimes, the intellect is muddied and dulled by laziness or even stupor. One can think of this as a veil of darkness that envelops the brilliance of the intellect, thereby eclipsing it. This darkness, termed tamas in yoga, is like the dark smoke that clouds the inner light from shining forth.

A well-known mantra from the Upanishads states:
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय ।
tamaso mā jyotirgamaya
Lead me from darkness to light
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad; Nikhilananda trans.).

Yoga practices provide many methods to clear the tamas and allow the inner light of the intellect to shine forth. Patanjali says:
ततः क्षीयते प्रकाशावरणम् ॥
tataḥ kṣīyate prakāsha avaraṇam
Pranayama removes the dark covering of avaranas [tamas] and allows the inner light to shine forth
(Yoga Sutra, 2.52)

As tamas is lifted and clarity dawns, the leader invokes the tremendous power of the intellect. He is able to use this power to prove the truth of his ideas and convince others of the same.

Karuna: the heart-to-heart connection

Whereas yukti provides a dispassionate appeal to the intellect, karuna ignites passion by connecting with the heart. Unless we touch the other’s heart, we cannot win their full support. A leader provides a space of harmony in which others are made to feel valued and appreciated.

The author states that the first step towards connecting with people at this deeper level is to respect them. According to yoga, respecting another is achieved by acknowledging and honoring the divine presence in them. The Bhagavad Gita states:
ईश्वरः सर्व-भूतानां हृद्-देशेऽर्जुन तिष्ठति ।
īśvaraḥ sarva bhūtānām hṛd deśe arjuna tiṣṭhati
The divine resides in the heart of all beings
(BG 18.61)

When we acknowledge this divine presence in another, we elevate them in our eyes and see them as the precious beings that they are. We value them. Furthermore, a leader does not see another being as inferior. Each one is a divine being who is respected and appreciated, and whose contribution is valued.

In addition to the three factors related to influencing capabilities of an individual, Patanjali offers the following remarkable wisdom, which reveals a profound method for connecting with others:
मैत्रीकरुणामुदितोपेक्षाणां सुखदुःखपुण्यापुण्यविषयाणां भावनातश्चित्तप्रसादनम् ॥
maitrī karuṇa mudita upekṣāṇāṃ
sukha duḥkha puṇya apuṇya viṣayāṇāṃ
bhāvanātaḥ citta prasādanam
Be friendly to those who are happy; be compassionate to those who are sad, appreciate those who are doing good work, and overlook the mistakes of others
(Yoga Sutra, 1.33)

Using these four bhāvanas (ways to connect) for the four types of people, as enunciated by Patanjali, the leader always remains connected with others and evokes their full potential.

Summary

The three virtues of inspirational leadership—namely, satyam, yukti and karuna—make the leader highly influential. Satyam builds the power of credibility of the leader by using the principles of ethics and excellence. Yukti express the scientific and intellectual side of the leader that helps him or her appeal to other’s intellect. Karuna awakens the artistic and compassionate side of the leader, by which he or she sees beauty in others and values them. As in all powerful combinations, the coming together of satyam, yukti, and karuna creates great synergy: the whole is far greater than the sum of its parts. In other words, the leader who embodies all three virtues has extraordinary power to influence others and potentially transform the world. The wisdom and practices contained in the classic yoga scriptures such as the Patanjali Yoga Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita provide valuable tools to cultivate satyam, yukti, and karuna.

This brilliant exposition by Dr. Shriram Sarvotham has provoked active interaction with my immediate team members. We have expanded the dialog by researching further writings on the theme “Leadership Principles from Hindu Scriptures.”

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We learned early in the course about Insider vs. Outsider perspectives. Outsider-led orientalism and Indology were designed to support the colonial agenda painting Indians as the other and portraying the colonizers as somehow better in order to justify subjugating and exploiting the Indians. Over hundreds of years, Orientalism and Indology have become entrenched in academia, and only through a methodical and relentless academic process can the established “truths” be proven false.

Insiders have a right to take control of our own narrative and not be silenced. The Macaulayan Indian was a purposeful creation who looked Indian but thought and acted in English. Not only was this class of people employed to do the middle management tasks for the British Raj administration but they were also trained to look down on all things Indian as passé. For their subservient and loyal behavior, these Indians were rewarded. They permeated throughout Indian society at influential levels. Today, any attempt by insiders to tell our pre-colonized stories is treated as a threat and accusations fly without any attempt of debate. Having the insider voice in academia is critical to, at minimum, academic integrity, and, at best, the decolonization of Indian minds.

In 1835 Thomas Macaulay was instrumental in abolishing the Indian Sanskrit education system and replacing it with an English system. Thus began the most impactful disintegration of Hindu thought. There are over 30 million Sanskrit manuscripts with only a small fraction translated into English. As fewer people speak Sanskrit, we risk losing more and more knowledge. A revival of Sanskrit language is needed in academia not just for the study of Hindu thought in itself, but also for the benefit of all disciplines in the form of integrated studies.

Already a small fraction of the 30 million manuscripts in Hindu Studies has contributed to the progress of the world scientifically and spiritually. Imagine what potential lies hidden in the vast treasure trove of knowledge yet to be translated, that could benefit humanity.

For a revival of Hindu Studies, it needs to attract a younger generation who have been brought up in the Westernized form of institutionalized academia. Hindu Studies need to be an option available to young students. It could form part of a liberal arts program leading to a variety of specializations.

It also has a place in academia for people like me, those preparing for or already in their retirement years. Growing up in Canada, I represent a common profile. In my teenage and young adult years, I paid little attention to my parents’ traditions, and ashamedly, sometimes even dismissed or mocked them. But some of the little knowledge acquired passively was to be an anchor later in life. Further interest in history led to understanding the impacts of colonization and accelerated the desire, subconsciously, to learn about my culture. Naturally, I looked for universities to continue my studies in Hinduism. Luckily, I found HUA. I believe there are people like me who grew up in the West and who will come back to explore and reclaim our heritage. It will be important to present an alternative to Indology and South Asian Studies programs, which do not feel authentic to the Insider.

In spite of over 500 years of occupation, Hindu culture, albeit injured, still survives. For tens of thousands of years, our ancestors systematically passed down knowledge for the benefit of future generations. It is our duty. We owe them every effort to re-establish, reveal, preserve, and protect our rich legacy. One effective way, I believe, is through establishing formal education in academia combined with innovation in education, such as Sanskrit immersion schools prior to higher education and later education through various multimedia and online platforms. Further, there needs to be financial security and recognition to incentivize people to pursue these subjects in their earlier years. These could be in the form of scholarships, chairs of programs, and award recognitions.

Recently in Canada, there has been much attention on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission as it relates to the Indigenous Nations and the colonizing Canadian residential school system. Vikram Sampath raised a similar idea for India at the India Today Conclave; that is, the need for a Truth and Reconciliation process to face the impacts of colonization and occupation in order to move forward. The damaging outcome of the many ‘truths’, rather falsehoods, propagated for years has been twofold: the perception of ethnic and cultural inferiority among Indians and second, the persistence of transgenerational trauma due to unresolved and unacknowledged grief. Hindu Studies belong and need to be in academia to support and augment the larger cause of decolonial studies as well as to enable India and Hindus to thrive authentically. For Hindus, this is a civilizational issue and I hope that more people will rise up to this endeavor.

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Para and Apara are two terms that we often come across while reading or learning things related to Indian philosophy. Para is said to be Brahman, the Absolute Truth or Reality. Even though Para is said to be the Ultimate Truth and Hinduism is about reaching It, why does almost everything related to Hinduism, such as Itihasas, Puranas, etc., fall under apara? Also, when a beginner student tries to understand these two concepts, the first resort they take would be to search the term and read a few articles online. How much justice would the English translation of the word ‘Para’ as transcendental, beyond this world, otherworldly, supernatural, etc., do to the actual sense in which it is conceived in the Indian context? How much would a student miss out on the essence of what the words really try to convey to the seeker? There is another striking question, if Para is permanent and Apara is something that is impermanent, then, as students of Hindu Studies, why do we need to give equal importance to both Para and Apara? Can’t we just negate everything that is Apara for its transient nature and channel all our attention towards Para?

When the West interacts with the Hindu traditions and translates Hindu texts into English, the issue of cultural difference is bound to emerge. The problem of translation cannot be properly understood without knowing how cultures differ. When someone from an entirely different culture, traditions, and religious background tries to explain the concepts of Hinduism, they would assess them in comparison to their own religion. For example, the concept of God in Christianity is entirely different from the Hindu God. The Christian God is a single entity, the one and only Creator, who is present in an entirely different world. You will have to die and cross this realm in order to reach Him. However, for the Hindus, their God is all-pervading and omnipresent, whom they can unite with through self-realization.

When we interpret ‘Para’ as transcendental, the whole paradigm shifts to explain Para or Brahman as belonging to a different world or being supernatural. Apara on the other hand is conceived by us as all things of this world. This separation between the worlds creates confusion and a significant amount of knowledge with regard to the Hindu concept of God gets eliminated in the process. When in reality, Hinduism considers Para as the subtle entity from which everything has originated and to which everything would merge back.

Now, the next question in line is why do we give the same significance to Para and Apara, if Para is the supreme Reality and Apara is the material things that we encounter with in our lives. Hindu shastras say that the road to Para is through the Apara. In order to attain Para, one must pass through the paths that are entangled with the Apara entities and the experience we gain from those interactions. This can be explained through the argument of Sri Balagangadhara. In the verse:

“Asato ma sat gamaya, Tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, Mrutyor ma amrutam gamaya,”
ॐ असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय ।ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥

(Brhadaranyaka Upanishad — I.iii.28)

We pray to the Lord to take us through the unreal to real, through the darkness to light, and through death to immortality. This shows that we need to pass through one thing, which might be undesirable to reach something worthy: we need to endure worldly life to attain liberation. In other words, Apara entities are the doors through which one needs to traverse in order to reach the Para entity or Brahman. Also, this verse is often translated by using “from” instead of “through” (such as ‘from’ darkness to light, ‘from’ immortality to death). Sri Balagangadhara argues that even though both usages are grammatically correct, our constant tendency to use “from” over “through” subtly reveals our inclination to identify “Para” with transcendental.1 We cannot simply pray to take us from one phase to another without facing up the materialistic elements of that particular phase.

1 Balagangadhara, S.N. “What do Indians Need, A History or the Past? A challenge or two to Indian historians” at the ICHR VII Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Memorial Lecture, 2014.

It is important to note that these confusions are not the products of mere translation issues. Even if one succeeds in translating specific words accurately, certain structures remain at the conceptual level. It is crucial that seekers in the Hindu tradition are aware of the possibilities and consequences of incorrect translations and interpretations that have and are bound to come up with the use of non-Hindu cosmologies. These issues have gained momentum, and students of Hindu Studies should be on the lookout. When we come across such a situation, it is important that we tackle the situation with a calm and clear mind, rather than becoming provoked and aggressive. This is because the task itself, an Apara card dealt for consideration, is a puzzle of our own lives to gain knowledge. In fact, one could be even thankful to our intellectual ‘opponents’ for giving us worthy puzzles to solve.

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By learning the ‘ought’s’ of life, we can lead a good life, but this does not make us free of suffering. Even a so-called ‘good’ person maybe plagued with troubles such as anger, envy, jealousy, disease and old age and, ultimately, death. Being a good person is not enough; something more is required. It is to teach this ‘something more’ that Vālmīki wrote the Yogavasistha. In fact, one can properly understand the popular Rāmāyaṇa only by reading the Yogavāsiṣṭha.

The sheer volume of the Yogavāsiṣṭha is enough to deter most readers. It is stated in the Yogavasistha itself that it consists of 32,000 verses divided into six books (Prakaraṇams), namely: the Vairāgya Prakaraṇam, the Mumukṣuvyavahāra Prakaraṇam, the Utpatti Prakaraṇam, the Sthiti Prakaraṇam, the Upaśama Prakaraṇam, the Nirvāṇa Prakaraṇam (Pūrvārdha) and the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam (Uttarārdha). The number of verses is, in fact, much less. In the introduction to Śrimadvālmīkimahaṛṣṭpraṇītaḥ Yogavāsiṣṭhaḥ, G. V. Tagare puts the number at 23,734 verses.¹

The first book, the Vairāgya Prakaraṇam, describes Rāma’s disillusionment with the world. The issue discussed here is whether jñāna (knowledge of the self) or karma (work, effort) is more important in attaining liberation from the misery of the world. The answer is that both are equally important, just as a bird needs both wings to fly.

The Mumukṣuvyavahāra Prakaraṇam is about the qualities of true seekers of liberation and their mental attitude. How the world was created and how it evolved is discussed in the Utpatti Prakaraṇam. The Sthiti Prakaraṇam talks about the preservation of the universe. The world appears to be real, but with the realization of Brahman, the mind is silenced and the world appears as nothing but Brahman. The Upaśama Prakaraṇam is about quieting the mind through proper understanding; the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam, as the name suggests, is about ultimate freedom. It suggests that knowledge of the self is the best way to break free from the miseries of the world.

It has to be pointed out that the structure of the Yogavasistha is very loose, and apart from the first Prakaraṇam, almost all the major themes are discussed and repeated throughout this mammoth text. As to the division of chapters within each Prakaraṇam, again there seems to be no order. Some chapters have as few as six verses, while others run into hundreds. Often a chapter ends abruptly, and the discussion is continued in the next chapter and the next. Often, while one concept is being discussed, there is a sudden digression and another topic begins. Later the speaker returns to the previous conversation. The Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam is as large as the first five combined. For some reason it is itself divided into two huge sections: the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam (Pūrvārdha) and the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam (Uttarārdha).

Interlaced with the dialogue are approximately fifty-five allegorical stories and stories within stories to illustrate the philosophical matters discussed. Here again, certain stories are told in about ten verses, while others, such as that of Cudālā, stretch over several chapters.

All these stories and subplots make it difficult for the modern reader to keep track of who is speaking to whom. For instance, the Yogavasistha begins with a Brahmin named Sutīkṣṇa who goes to the sage Agasti and asks about ways to get out of the misery of the world. To answer his question, Agasti tells him the story of Kāruṇya, a very learned man, well-versed in the scriptures, who has lost interest in life. Noticing this, his father tells him the story of King Ariṣtanemi, who is sent to Vālmīki for the resolution of his sorrows. Vālmīki then tells Ariṣtanemi the story of Rāma’s dialogue with Vasiṣṭha.

Encyclopedic in its scope, the Yogavāsiṣṭha deals with ontology, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and psychology. The underlying philosophy of the Yogavasistha is predominantly of Advaita Vedānta. There are several verses of the Yogavāsiṣṭha which are also found in other Upanişads and the Bhagavadgītā. B. L. Atreya made an exhaustive comparative chart, and believed that being a voluminous scripture the Yogavāsiṣṭha may not have been freely available in the days when books were written by hand. Anthologists must have picked up some useful verses from it and used them to create new Upanişads.²

Yogavasistha Core philosophy

Although the Yogavāsiṣṭha is voluminous, its central message can be expressed in a few statements: Nothing exists except absolute consciousness (also called universal consciousness or Brahman), and the world is the imagination of this universal consciousness. The universal consciousness is absolute and perfect. All change happens in the phenomenal world, (which has no independent existence, as it is just an imagination of absolute consciousness). All the beings of the world are no different from the universal consciousness, as they emerged out of it. All the misery that is experienced by individual beings happens because they mistakenly identify themselves with their body and forget that they are essentially the same as the universal consciousness, Brahman. Since misery arises out of ignorance of the self, it ends with knowledge of the self. Ajātivāda says that the world was never created (aja) as it is imaginary or illusory. What can we say about the origin of a thing that is imaginary? It was there always as imagination of absolute Brahman, hence we cannot ask the question when it was born. Only Brahman truly exists, and Brahman or the absolute is non-dual.

The scriptures are words of the enlightened to awaken those who are taking their dream to be real. Once we wake from the dream, we realize that nothing has to be gained because nothing was ever lost. No one has to be liberated because there was no bondage in the first place as the absolute can never be bound. 

न बन्धोऽस्ति न मोक्षोऽस्ति देहिनः परमार्थतः।
मिथ्येयमिन्द्रजालश्रि: संसारपरिवर्तिनी।।

^{Ultimately, there is neither bondage nor liberation for the self;
Illusion alone keeps all trapped in the vicious cycle of the world.3}

All that ends after knowledge dawns is the illusory world, not the eternally blissful self. Liberation and bliss are our intrinsic nature (svabhāva), and svabhāva means that which can never be taken away from us. The truth, therefore, is that the mind has no existence other than in the imagination of absolute. That absolute is not nothingness; it is complete and encompasses all, and whatever emerges from it is also absolute. 

पूर्णात्पूर्ण विसरति पूर्णे पूर्णे विराजते। 
पूर्णमेवोदितं पूर्णे पूर्णमेव व्यवस्थितम्।।

^{From the whole emerges the whole, and the whole is situated in the whole;
Thus, whatever is there in the whole exists in its wholeness.4}
Vasişţha relies solely on reason. He does not advocate any kind of blind faith, worship, or rituals. It is for this reason the Yogavasistha could have a tremendous appeal to any modern thinking person, provided they have the patience to listen to the full argument. No other Indian text analyses the human condition as thoroughly as the Yogavāsiṣṭha does. Vasiṣṭha himself says: 

यदिहास्ति तदन्यत्र यन्नेहास्ति न तत् क्वचित्।
इमं समस्तविज्ञानशास्त्रकोशं विदुर्बुधाः।।

^{What is in it is nowhere else, what is not in it is not elsewhere;}

^{Hence the learned have called it a repository of scriptures.5}
People normally think that those who seek self-liberation ought to withdraw from active life and lead the life of a hermit − praying, meditating, and performing rituals. Vedānta does not advocate this type of life. It says that you ought to go on doing whatever you are supposed to, but remember all the time that you are not the doer. Do everything with a sense of detachment and be unaffected by whatever is happening around you, just as a lotus grows in a pond without getting wet.

The Yogavasistha does not advocate worship of any kind, rituals, neither ablutions nor prayer to a deity, not even meditative techniques. It, however, seriously discourages escapism and laziness, and strongly advocates human effort. 

स्वपौरुषप्रयत्नेन  विवेकेन  विकासिना।
स देवो ज्ञायते राम न तप:सनानकर्मभि:।।

Through effort and maturity alone is the self known, Rāma,
Not through penance, holy bath, and other such actions.⁶ 

Rāma’s dialogue with Vasiṣṭha, after which Rāma becomes free of the miseries of the world. The book which narrates this dialogue is called the Yogavāsiṣṭha. It is said that one can become free of worldly miseries merely by reading the Yogavasistha.

After Vālmīki wrote the epic Rāmāyaṇa, called in full, Pūrva Rāmāyaṇa, he was approached by Brahmā, the creator of the world, to write a book that would free humans of worldly misery and make them eternally blissful. Thus was born the scripture known variously as Uttara Rāmāyaṇa, Mahārāmāyaṇa, Ārśa-Rāmāyaṇa, Jñānavāsişţha, Vasiṣṭharāmāyaṇa, more popularly called the Yogavāsiṣṭha.

Liberation for all

One striking feature of the Yogavāsiṣṭha is that its vision is secular. Furthermore, it does not believe in gender, race or caste discrimination. All that is required on the part of a seeker is to be a sincere and determined disciple. In fact, the main character of one of its longest stories is a queen named Cudālā. She not only acquires self-knowledge but also teaches her husband the means of acquiring it. The Yogavāsiṣṭha goes even further by showing that one need not be of high birth to attain self-knowledge: anyone can have it. It names people from lower castes and wild tribes, and gives instances where animals, too, become liberated. Even Śeşanāga, the deadly snake, is liberated, as is Kākabhuşuņda, the crow. This might sound far fetched, but the point being made here is that anyone can become blissful if they really wish to.

1. Pansikar, Vasudeva Laxmana Sharma (Ed.), Srimadvālmīkimahāŗşpraņītaĥ Yogavāsiṣṭhaḥ Vol I, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, p VII 
2. Atreya B. L., Yogavāsiṣṭha aur Uske Sidhdhant, Shri Krishna Janamsthan Seva Sansthan, Mathura 1986, p4; for comparative charts see pages
45-59, 67-69 of the same book. 
3. Yogavāsiṣṭha V:18:27
4. Yogavāsiṣṭha VIB:53:20
5. Yogavāsiṣṭha III:8:12
6. Yogavāsiṣṭha III:6:9 

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Considering that there are so many facets to Hinduism, wouldn’t it suffice for one to practice one or more of them? If so, why is there a need to embark on an academic pursuit of the Sanatana Dharma?

I practice Hinduism; then why do I need to study Hinduism?

Many amongst us are keen believers of Hinduism and its philosophy – only, we express it in different ways. Some of us follow rituals and traditions; others focus on their Gods and places of worship; a few delve deep into scriptures and read them regularly; some are vocal about the role of Hinduism in today’s society; and some have embraced a certain community under the guidance of a Swami or a Guru. For many, Hinduism is purely the joy of celebrating festivals and holy days; for a few, it is a spiritual experience that leads them to dhyāna and dharma, and there are those who are very particular about their beliefs and practices.

Considering that there are so many facets to Hinduism, wouldn’t it suffice for one to practice one or more of them? If so, why is there a need to embark on an academic pursuit of the Vedas and Sanatana Dharma?

Just as all other aspects of practising Hinduism have their place in our lives, so does structured and supervised learning of the great tenets of this ancient religion. Imagine practising yoga without being formally trained in it – we are constantly at risk of injury or health risks because of incomplete understanding of the science, or because we have failed to learn the intricacies of each asana. While each asana comes with its own health benefits, there are clear guidelines about who can perform them, and when, and how they need to be performed. Hence the need for formal training and a guru.

The need to engage in an academic pursuit of Hinduism is equally important, for the following reasons:

1. The need to know: How is the ātman different from brahman? What does the Bhagavad Gīta tell us? What is the significance of vegetarianism in Hinduism? Why is yoga not an end in itself, but merely the means to the path of spiritual enlightenment? Why is the knowledge of Sanskrit paramount to understanding Hinduism better? What is the truth behind the much-maligned caste system that is attributed to Hinduism? Is the suffix of -ism justified when Hinduism is slotted with other world religions despite the fact that it is thousands of years older than any of them? There are many more questions to which we need the answers. We need to know, because it is this knowledge that will propel us on our spiritual journey. And this knowledge cannot be obtained by casual research on the internet. It takes an academic resolve to explore, study, introspect and find these answers. It takes the guidance of the experts who become our gurus in this journey.
   
2. The need to lead: Many of us follow or practice certain aspects of Hinduism because we were initiated into it by our elders, and we obeyed them unquestioningly. However, when it comes to encouraging our next generation to follow in our footsteps, we need to be able to address their questions and satisfy their need to understand before they accept. How many of us can put our hands up to claim that we know the nuances of Hinduism, what they mean, why they must be practised and how they benefit us? Contrary to popular Western belief, every aspect of Hinduism, be it tradition or practice, belief or worship, is built on the strong foundation of a rationale. Everything can be explained, but only if we have the answers. That can happen only when we open ourselves to learning and being guided through an exercise that broadens our horizons of what we know about Hinduism. An academic study makes this exercise possible.  
   
3. The need to uphold: Hinduism has been subjected to a long, endless phase of discrimination, because of its ‘majority status’ in India and because of misconceived notions about it in the West, resulting in it being called polytheistic, idolatrous and pagan. This has resulted in a dilution of its core values amongst a majority of Hindus, who have been deviating from its original path of spirituality and instead have been choosing the hybrid route dictated by Western practices. There is a long-standing need to clear the fog that has obfuscated this path and show the way for those Hindus who have been led to believe that their religion has riddled society with discrimination and superstition, which is again, a colonial narrative that needs to be disproved. This can be done only by a detailed study of Hinduism and acquiring Vedic wisdom. Only an academic pursuit can help fulfil this objective.
   
4. The need to protect: When the colonial powers left India, they unfortunately left behind a legion of sceptics – Hindus who were critical of their own religion. Rather than question the beliefs, practices and ancient scriptures in an attempt to seek answers, they ended up questioning their religion more to voice their disagreements and flaunt their Western mindset. This continues to this day with the growing liberal voices that have been indoctrinated into the colonial perspective of believing that the West is the ultimate source of knowledge and authority and that everything in the world must meet their acceptance to exist.
   
5. The need to correct: For centuries, the written word on Hinduism has mostly come from the pen of the outsider. Theirs is deemed to be ‘more objective’ and their interpretation of Hinduism is upheld as the world view, which is considered ‘more informed’ and more ‘in line with’ the colonial narrative that has been forced on us. If we need to respond and offer the right narrative, which is the insider’s perspective, we need to be better equipped to do so. That requires an in-depth knowledge of our own past, our ethos, philosophies and our scriptures. It also requires a working knowledge of the wonderful language in which all our scriptures have been presented to us – Sanskrit. A casual reading or internet research wouldn’t suffice. Chances are, such endeavours may lead us back to the colonial perspectives that may appear as search results. Or we may end up reading Westernized versions of our epics because we choose to study them in English. That is why we need to undertake a formal academic journey into Hinduism.

There could be many more reasons why one needs to undertake an academic study of Hinduism to discover various aspects of it. And there is one place of learning that nurtures such studies, offering several courses at various levels to both entrants and experts.

This could be the opportunity you have been looking for – to find the answers, to set right what’s gone wrong, and to reinstall the dormant values in future generations. An entire world of Vedic wisdom awaits, to be explored, revered and understood. All it takes to begin this fascinating journey is for you to get in touch with us.

So, when is the best time to start? Now! And where does one begin? Right here!

Cover Image created in Word Art by JS.

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When Gītopadeśa starts churning out, when the manthana starts inside, we are left with no other choice but to start a detour which is inward. This detour will bring you back to the very point where you left from. Life will still be riddled with puzzles, failure and success, but the one who comes back will not be the one who left for this detour.

Krsna’s Detour

Bhagavadgītā’s first chapter is called “Arjuna Viśāda Yoga” a.k.a. Arjuna’s despondency. Unlike the popular belief that this chapter is about Arjuna’s antics and tantrums, his shallow understanding and self-centered thinking, this chapter, what I think, is about internalizing Arjuna’s mental condition through the contours of perfectly crafted verses, one arrives at a critical reflection on one’s own life. An introspection which, by the end of this chapter should replace Arjuna with you, the reader, ready to listen and understand what Kṛṣṇa has to say. Through classroom discussions and readings, I realized that Arjuna’s problem was not that of sorrow, grief, or fear; but it was a compound feeling of dismay, frustration and confusion. Arjuna through his words and gestures neither is fully in utter grief nor utter fear, but like every other human being is contemplating on the past and worried about the future. He was worried about the outcome of his actions and was in grief of an imaginary future, a future that existed only in his mind, with its pessimistic thoughts and feelings. We too observe and experience this state of dismay, hopelessness and aimlessness in our efforts. This is the condition of every human being who has attained a certain level of maturity and adulthood but is still lacking the knowledge of Self. And when they reach a crux, a decisive moment, they cede. This condition of Arjuna can be seen in the verses below, but it is important that the reader and/or sādhaka should replace Arjuna with himself or herself, to imbibe and find themselves standing in the midst of the two armies on the battlefield (Kurukṣetra). Once they (the reader) do that, they can visualize those moments of their life, that have either happened, happening or about to happen, where they felt all alone, and like a straw facing, or preparing to face, the headwinds of past and present karmas that are beginning to unfold into some unavoidable, and possibly terrible, outcomes. When they are able to do so, the Gītopadeśa will start to unravel itself and simultaneously Yogeśwara (another name for Kṛṣṇa) will descend, will incarnate to un-blind you.

Chapter 1 verse 29–31 

वेपथुश्च शरीरे मे रोमहर्षश्च जायते || 29||

गाण्डीवं स्रंसते हस्तात्त्वक्चै व परिदह्यते |

न च शक्नोम्यवस्थातुं भ्रमतीव च मे मन: || 30||

निमित्तानि च पश्यामि विपरीतानि केशव |

न च श्रेयोऽनुपश्यामि हत्वा स्वजनमाहवे || 31||

My whole body shudders; my hair is standing on end. My bow, the Gandiv, is slipping from my hand, and my skin is burning all over. My mind is in quandary and whirling in confusion; I am unable to hold myself steady any longer. O Krishna, killer of the Keshi demon, I only see omens of misfortune. I do not foresee how any good can come from killing my own kinsmen in this battle.

Having understood Arjuna’s condition, the various strings that he has attached to his existence, to his self, Śrī Kṛṣṇa takes him on a de tour of understanding life, sorrow and happiness. It is a detour because Arjuna and we, both stick on ourselves many temporal labels that create illusions. In this journey of ours called life, where we are alone, we try to hold on to some of these temporal identities far too long or try to keep those identities even when they have expired or are about to expire; to satisfy our egos and feel transitory security (note the indirect reference to kāma and arthā). With all our private thoughts and passions kept only to ourselves, this indeed is a very lonely journey. And because everyone around us is on a same kind of journey—a lonely one—when Gītopadeśa starts churning out, when the manthana starts inside, we are left with no other choice but to start a detour which is inward, towards what we really are and who we really are, towards our that forgotten identity which is śāśvata and nityam. This detour will bring you back to the very point where you left from. Life will still be riddled with puzzles, failure and success, but the one who comes back will not be the one who left for this detour.

Leaving the depths of esoteric and soteriological teachings at bay, because an attempt to understand them requires a lifetime of efforts and constant contemplation (vairagya), I would like to express my view on what one can expect to “be” once they understand and internalize the Gītopadeśa. Bhagavadgītā or Śri Kṛṣṇa, propose two paths i.e., nivṛtti and pravṛtti mārgas (paths). I would again maneuver away from these two terms because they in themselves are huge disciplines which can bring renaissance to an individual’s worldview and their meaning of existence. It is also important to understand Hindu theology and Hindu God(s) as I (a Hindu) see it and not understand Hindu theology in the Western or Abhramic sense. If I have to summarize Hindu theology in a few lines; it is the present acting divinity to which an individual is a part. A Hindu is a part of a grand animation (mithya) where he sees his Gods or God appearing to pull him out of the illusionary effects of this animation (saṃsāra), like a father or a mother or a guru waking you up from your dream (ignorance). The divine does not help the Hindu to propel his life as he would like to, there are no temporal, worldly agendas that Hindu Gods (or God) promise to be fulfilled. Every boon and every curse is a transaction in this grand animation, a transaction that can go beyond one lifetime. The ultimate boon, if you may call it so, that Hindu divinity grants, is the realization of the reality of this animation and thereby enabling the Hindu to understand and accept his or her true identity, his true Self once again. It is interesting how revelation is used in modern terms, which is very egocentric; “I had a revelation”. But in a Hindu’s life a guru or a God brings or does the revelation. That is why it is the present acting divinity, which once put into motion pulls an individual out of the mundane.

Now that I have made an attempt to summarize Hindu theology and hopefully done a good enough job, let me get back to what to expect out of this detour and the Self that one will find. As you (the reader) begin your journey of Bhagavadgītā and understand Swami Dayananda Saraswati ji’s explanations of each verse, you will identify more and more with Arjuna, to a point that Arjuna will disappear, and it will be like Śri Kṛṣṇa is talking to you via Swamiji. Now, through these topographic contours, through this epistemology of tradition, this dichotomy and convolution of the two paths (nivṛtti and pravritti), through debates and discourses, the fabric of the perceived reality of world, of events, of emotions and thoughts starts to rupture. Your most cherished identities, your most awkward memories start dwarfing in front of your true Self that will start appearing gradually. But when a paradigm is shaken or broken, when a paradigm is ruptured there is always a competing, more compelling one at disposal. But as I said, when you (the reader) return from this detour, life will still be with its challenges, so the competing paradigm cannot be an external belief which you have to follow to make adjustments in your life, rather, it is a realization from within—a screeching voice—long suppressed by you, yet omnipresent (please note the word omnipresent). It is like a person who has been living within you, observing you, and yet not the agent (kartā) of your actions nor the enjoyer (bhogtā) of the results of your actions. He is like an indifferent you. This is the Self that one finds on this detour, when the labels one covers themselves with and the perceptions one builds, are removed. This is the realization that all worldly things; be it physical objects, relations, feelings or emotions are not Self but only part of a passing phenomenon which, though important and vital to carry on in this life, are not Self. Therefore, these things should not be the focus of one’s future actions. Rather one’s future and present actions should be performed not to sustain this identification with these objects, but the actions should be performed with a sense of duty and obligation. It is important to note that these obligations are not merely worldly, but have a larger meaning to the sacrificial nature of life (where the entire life becomes a yajña), and the responsibility is of how excellently one performs rather than whether one was able to achieve a certain goal or objective. When the mind dwells on the objectives and goals, they cast a dark shadow, and exercise a clout over reasoning and logic, they grow in size and number like tentacles, forever keeping you entangled. But when one performs the actions for the sheer joy of performing them and excellently executing them, there is no fear of outcomes. This does not imply that one should not have goals or objectives in life, but should keep a focus on individual actions as obligations or offerings towards one’s emancipation and liberation (jñāna), God (bhakti) or into the sacrificial fire of life (karma), which burns all karma and its results.

Having scribed my opinion, I would also like to mention that what I tried to explain here was more on the pravṛttī side rather than nivṛtti side of the traditional explanation. Nivṛttī is still the end goal (the higher path of the two), but as I said the higher path goes through the lower one. In other words, Hinduism does not teach you to be monastic from day-one and renounce everything, but teaches you to accept the battles of day to day life, its sorrows and joys, its failures and the victories as prasāda (left over of either devotional offering made to a God or into a sacrifice (yajña)). But I save this for later, and until then ask Kṛṣṇa to bring your chariot in the midst of the two armies (Bhagavad Gīta:

Chapter 1, Verse 21-22):

सेनयोरुभयोर्मध्ये रथं स्थापय मेऽच्युत || 21||

यावदेतान्निरीक्षेऽहं योद्धुकामानवस्थितान् |

कैर्मया सह योद्धव्यमस्मिन् रणसमुद्यमे || 22||

This blog is part of the reflection exercise on chapter one of Bhagavadgītā as part of HUA’s Bhagavadgītā course by Swamini Agamananda Saraswati.

Cover Image source: https://ar.pinterest.com/pin/789255903436785725/ Accessed 04/11/2021

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