Akṣayyatṛtīyā is a Hindu festival with deep roots in multiple Hindu and Jain scriptures. It finds mention in many Purāṇas, and has some very interesting stories associated with it. According to the Hindu tradition, it is observed on Vaiśākha-śukla-tṛtīyā or the third day of the bright half of the month of Viśākha, which this year occurs on April 29, 2025 in first paragraph last line.

The oldest reference to Akṣayyatṛtīyā is believed to be from Viṣṇudharmasūtra with an emphasis on the worship of Viṣṇu, on fasting, oblations with whole grains and donating the grains.

वैशाखशुक्लतृतीयायाम् उपोषितः अक्षतैः वासुदेवमभ्यर्च्य तानेव हुत्वा दत्वा च सर्वपापेभ्यः पूतो भवति ।

यच्च तस्मिन्नहनि प्रयच्छति तत् अक्षय्यम् आप्नोति ।

On the bright third day of Vaiśākha, he who fasts, worships Vasudeva with unbroken grains, offers oblations, and donates, he becomes purified of all sins. Whatever is given on this day, it becomes inexhaustible.

Matsyapurāṇa reiterates the importance of fasting, sacrifice and donating. As per the Bhaviśyapurāṇa, Satayuga, Tretayuga and Kaliyuga began on Akṣayyatṛtīyā.  It is said to be one of the sarva-siddhi-muhūrtas, and any task undertaken on this day is sure to be a success. In Bhaviśyapurāṇa Śrīkṛṣṇa himself says:

श्रीकृष्ण उवाच ।

बहुनात्र किमुक्तेन किं बह्वक्षरमालया ।

वैशाखस्य सितामेकां तृतीयां शृणु पाण्डव ॥ ४०:३०:१ ॥

स्नानं दानं जपो होमः स्वाध्यायः पितृतर्पणम् ।

यदस्यां क्रियते किञ्चित्सर्वं स्यात्तदिहाक्ष यम् ॥ २ ॥

आदौ कृतयुगस्येयं युगादिस्तेन कथ्यते ।

सर्वपापप्रशमनी सर्वसौख्यप्रदायिनी ॥ ३ ॥

Śrīkṛṣṇa uvāca |

bahunātra kimuktena kiṃ bahvakṣaramālayā |

vaiśākhasya sitāmekāṃ tṛtīyāṃ śṛṇu pāṇḍava || 4:30:1 ||

snānaṃ dānaṃ japo homaḥ svādhyāyaḥ pitṛtarpaṇam |

yadasyāṃ kriyate kiñcitsarvaṃ syāttadihākṣa yam || 2 ||

ādau kṛtayugasyeyaṃ yugādistena kathyate |

sarvapāpapraśamanī sarvasaukhyapradāyinī || 3 ||

Śrīkṛṣṇa said:

What need is there to say much here, or why use many words? Listen, O Pandava, to the one important thing about the bright third day of Vaiśākha.

Bathing, charity, chanting, fire sacrifice, scriptural study, and offering to ancestors – whatever is done here in these respects, all that becomes imperishable.

This is considered the beginning of the Krita Yuga, therefore it is called the start of the Yuga. It alleviates all sins and grants all happiness.

As per various purāṇas, Śrī Mahāviṣṇu took the avatāra of Matsya, Hayagriva, Kūrma, Varaha, Nṛsimha and Paraśurāma avatāras in this day. Hence Paraśurāma jayanti is observed on this day too.

The Stories:

Akṣayyatṛtīyā is associated with many incidents narrated in the our Itihāsa purāṇas.

1. Ganeśa Writes Mahābhārata:

Akṣayyatṛtīyā is believed to be the day on which Mahābhārata was written. Some traditions hold that this auspicious day is when Ṛṣī Vyāsa dictated the Mahābhārata to Bhagavān Gaṇeśa, his scribe for this endeavor.

2. Yudhisthira Receives Aksayapātra:

Another Mahābhārata sanniveśa linked with Akṣayyatṛtīyā unfolds in the Vana-parva. As the Pāṇḍavas embarked on their vanavāsa, a multitude of citizens from Indraprastha, along with ṛṣīs, sādhus, and wise men, chose to accompany them. Despite Yudhiṣṭhira’s efforts to dissuade them, they remained steadfast. According to dharma, these individuals were subjects of King Yudhiṣṭhira, thus compelling him to ensure their well-being.

Nāradamuni visited King Yudhiṣṭhira, who expressed his concern over his inability to fulfill his kingly duties due to insufficient resources to feed his entourage. Nārada muni suggested seeking counsel from the Pāṇḍava family priest, Ṛṣī Dhaumya. Yudhiṣṭhira followed this advice, and Ṛṣī Dhaumya imparted to him the 108 names of Āditya (the Sun God), passed down from Indra. He instructed the Kuru King to beseech the Sun.

Ṛṣī Dhaumya elucidated to Dharmarāja how the Sun sustains all life forms in the food chain, underscoring the significance of honoring the Sun. From seeds to living-breathing animals, the Sun is the ultimate source of sustenance of all. Hence, offering reverence to the Sun would alleviate their food crisis.

Yudhiṣṭhira bathes in the river and earnesting worships the Sun God. Pleased with his piety, Sūrya gives him akṣayapātra, a miraculous vessel with an inexhaustible supply of four types of food – seeds, fruits, roots, and meat. Sūrya Bhagavān assured that the Pāṇḍava king would be sustained for 14 years without worry. Yudhiṣṭhira entrusted the akṣayapātra to his queen, who skillfully prepared and served food to all present.

3. Draupadi – Śri Krsna Story:

The subsequent tale features the Pāṇḍava Queen Draupadi and Bhagavān Śri Kṛṣṇa. One day, Ṛṣī Durvāsa, accompanied by his retinue, happened to pass by the forest where the Pāṇḍavas were residing during their vanavāsa and decided to pay them a visit. However, the Pāṇḍava princes were away foraging, leaving only Queen Draupadi at home. Draupadi, as a Kuru queen, was compelled to extend hospitality to the revered sage and invite him for a meal. Unfortunately, there was no food available in the hut at the time.

In a bid to stall, Draupadi requested the sages to refresh themselves with a bath while she prepared the meal. She prays to Kṛṣṇa for help and cognizant of the situation, he intervened. He arrived at her doorstep and insisted that Draupadi serve him immediately. Draupadi, recognizing Śri Kṛṣṇa’s divine nature, surrendered to him with devotion, and complied. Searching the hut, she found only a single grain of rice remaining in a pot. With humility and reverence, she offered this grain to Devakinandana. Madhusūdhana consumed it, and instantly, not only the sages but the entire universe felt satiated.

The sages, led by Durvāsa muni, then approached Draupadi and conveyed that they were full, expressing regret for being unable to partake of her hospitality. Thus, the single grain of rice offered by Draupadi to Govinda multiplied manifold, nourishing the entire world. This legendary incident is said to have occurred on Akṣayyatṛtīyā.

4. Krsna and Sudāma Tale:

Another tale linked to Akṣayyatṛtīyā is a Harikatha from the Śrimad Bhāgavata Purāṇa. In their youth, Śrī Kṛṣṇa and Sudāma were disciples at Ṛṣī Sāndipani’s hermitage. In later life, facing financial struggles and upon his wife’s urging, Sudāma visited Kṛṣṇa. Carrying only flattened rice as a gift, Sudāma hesitated to offer it to the Lord. However, Kṛṣṇa, understanding his friend’s heart, graciously accepted the humble offering. With each morsel that Śrī Kṛṣṇa ate, Sudāma received boundless wealth through divine grace.

This divine exchange, symbolizing the magnitude of sakha-bhakti (devotion to Bhagawān as a friend) and daiva-kṛpa (divine benevolence), occurred on the auspicious day of Akṣayyatṛtīyā.

5. Annapūrnā and Bhagavān Śiva’s Tale:

Another significant tale involves Goddess Annapūrṇā and Bhagavān Śiva’s quest for food. Śiva, known for his asceticism, rejected all material possessions, including food. Understanding the importance of sustenance, especially food, Goddess Pārvati decided to enlighten him. She withdrew all material wealth from the earth, causing widespread famine. There was chaos in the world due to hunger. Faced with the plight of his devotees, Śiva realized his oversight and sought sustenance for them. Searching the entire world, he found food only in Kāśi. Pārvati as Goddess Annapūrṇā, who graciously provided food to all upon Mahādeva’s request.

This narrative underscores the importance of the material world and highlights the role of women, particularly Goddess Annapūrṇā, in providing sustenance. It also imparts lessons in humility and the significance of food for sustenance.

As a result of this legend, many regions in India observe the ritual of sowing paddy or rice on Akṣayyatṛtīyā, marking the beginning of the summer crop.

6. Gangā Avatarana:

Another significant lore found in many Itihāsa-Purāṇas recounts the descent of the river Gaṅgā to earth. Ṛṣī Kapila’s meditation was disrupted by King Sāgara’s 60,000 sons, whom he subsequently incinerated with his gaze. The only

means of their restoration lay in the healing powers of Gaṅgā, who was then residing in svargaloka. King Bhagiratha, a descendant of Sāgara, undertook rigorous penance to persuade Gaṅgā to descend to earth. However, her fall posed a threat to the planet’s stability. To mitigate this, King Bhagiratha prayed to Śiva, who consented to break Gaṅgā’s fall with his matted hair. Thus, on the auspicious day of Akṣayyatṛtīyā, Gaṅgā descended to earth and revived all 60,000 ancestors of Bhagiratha,  thereafter came to be known as Bhāgīrathī.

7. Ādiśankarācharya Composed Kanakdhāra Stotram:

It is traditionally believed that in the 8th century CE,  Ādiśankarāchārya composed the Kanakadhāra strotram on the day of Akṣayyatṛtīyā. The story goes that when he was 8 years old, he once went for Bhikashatana. He went to a poor brahmin woman’s home to beg for alms. She did not have anything and gave Adishankaraacharyan the lone Indian gooseberry that she had for food. Seeing her generosity despite her poverty, the 8 years old Shankara composed and sang the Kanakadhara Stotram in the praise of Goddess lakshmi. At the end of his stuti, the Goddess appeared and offered him a boon. Adi shankaracharya is said to have requested Goddess lakshmi to give wealth to the poor brahmin woman. Immediately there was a shower of gold coins (Kanka+Dhaara) in front of that lady’s house.

It is believed that chanting this stotram make Goddess Lakshmi happy and brings wealth and prosperity to the home.

Conclusion

Thus we see that Akṣayyatṛtīyā holds profound significance in Hindu tradition, resonating across various scriptures such as Dharmasūtras, Itihāsas, and Purāṇas. These scriptures contain numerous references and narratives highlighting the auspiciousness of this occasion. While the dharma śāstras emphasize the importance of charity, offerings to Śrī Mahāviṣṇu, and initiating positive endeavors on this day, respect for material wealth, particularly food grains, is intricately woven into many narratives associated with Akṣayyatṛtīyā, as evidenced by stories from the Mahābhārata and Śrīmad Bhāgavata Purāṇa.

Wishing everyone a blessed Akṣayyatṛtīyā and Paraśurāma Jayanti.

The post The Significance of Akṣayyatṛtīyā appeared first on Hindu University of America.

Defending Tradition vs Truth: Patanjali vs Indian Medical Association’s Legal Battle Over Ayurvedic Claims

Baba Ramdev: 

Baba Ramdev, born Ramkishan Yadav, is a prominent Indian yoga guru known for popularizing yoga among the masses through his mass yoga camps and television programs. Born in Haryana, India, he studied Indian scripture, yoga, and Sanskrit in various gurukuls (traditional Indian schools). He co-founded the Patanjali Ayurved Ltd. with his colleague, Acharya Balakrishna, and through this venture, they entered into various sectors including personal care and food products, promoting products based on Ayurvedic principles. Baba Ramdev has been a significant figure in advocating for Hindu social and political causes, and his teachings emphasize the health benefits of yoga and Ayurveda. He has also been involved in various social, political, and economic campaigns, such as anti-corruption and promoting indigenous products over foreign brands.

Acharya Balakrishna:

Acharya Balakrishna, born in Haridwar, India, is a close associate of Baba Ramdev and serves as the Managing Director of Patanjali Ayurved Ltd. He holds a degree in Ayurveda from the Sampurnanand Sanskrit University in Varanasi, India but the validity of this has also come into question. Nevertheless, Balakrishna has been instrumental in the formulation and development of Patanjali’s range of Ayurvedic products. His expertise in Ayurveda has led to significant contributions to the field, including research and development of new products and therapies. Balakrishna is also known for his philanthropic efforts and his role in promoting Ayurveda globally through Patanjali’s extensive network.

Together, Baba Ramdev and Acharya Balakrishna have turned Patanjali Ayurved into a major player in the Indian FMCG sector, championing the cause of traditional Indian herbal products and Ayurvedic practices.

Legal Situation:

The ongoing legal case against Patanjali Ayurveda, has been a significant focal point in India. Initiated by the Indian Medical Association (IMA) in August 2022, the case accuses Patanjali and Ramdev of making false claims against evidence-based modern medicine and its practitioners. The controversy largely revolves around misleading advertisements, including claims about the effectiveness of Ayurvedic products against chronic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure, as well as misleading information regarding COVID-19 vaccines and treatments.

The Supreme Court of India has taken a firm stance in this case. Patanjali Ayurved has faced severe rebukes for violating advertising standards, particularly those laid out in the Drugs & Other Magical Remedies Act, 1954 (DOMA), and the Consumer Protection Act, 2019. These laws prohibit misleading advertisements that suggest unverified medicinal benefits of products. The court has temporarily banned Patanjali from advertising some products, focusing on ensuring that consumers are not misled by unfounded medical claims. This legal battle underscores the importance of truthful advertising and the need for regulatory compliance in promoting medical products. A recent court session also highlighted the ongoing scrutiny of Patanjali’s actions, with the Supreme Court questioning the sincerity of the apologies offered by its founders.

Timeline of the legal case

Here’s a timeline of key events related to the legal case against Patanjali Ayurveda initiated by the Indian Medical Association (IMA):

• June 2020: Patanjali Ayurved introduced Coronil in June, 2020, during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The product was promoted by Baba Ramdev, claiming it was a cure for the coronavirus. Coronil was said to be made from a combination of ingredients known in Ayurveda to boost immunity, such as Mulethi, Giloy, Tulsi, and Ashwagandha.
• July 2022: Patanjali publishes advertisements claiming that their products can cure various chronic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure. These advertisements also include claims about COVID-19 that were contested by medical authorities.
• August 2022: The IMA files a petition against Patanjali and its brand ambassador, Baba Ramdev, citing misleading advertisements and derogatory statements against evidence-based modern medicine and its practitioners. The petition highlights the misuse of media to spread misinformation regarding allopathic treatments and vaccines for COVID-19.
• Early 2023: Preliminary hearings and responses are exchanged, with the Supreme Court of India beginning to review the claims and evidence presented by both sides.
• February 27, 2024: The Supreme Court delivers a significant ruling, imposing a temporary ban on Patanjali from advertising specific products that claim to treat diseases as specified under the DOMA and CPA. The court also warns against making negative statements about conventional medicine.
• March 19, 2024: The Supreme Court schedules a follow-up hearing to review the progress and adherence to its orders regarding misleading advertisements and public statements.
• April 16, 2024: The Supreme Court engages directly with Baba Ramdev and Acharya Balkrishna to assess the sincerity of their public apologies and their commitment to ceasing misleading advertisements. The court underscores the need for genuine corrective actions.
• April 23, 2024: A subsequent hearing is scheduled where the court will continue its scrutiny of Patanjali’s compliance with the law and ethical advertising standards.

Where are we today?

Baba Ramdev and Acharya Balkrishna offered an apology during their interactions with the Supreme Court of India. Their apology came under scrutiny as the court evaluated the sincerity and genuineness behind their expressions of regret for misleading advertisements and statements that disparaged modern medicine and the COVID-19 vaccination efforts. During the court proceedings, the justices were not fully convinced by the apologies, emphasizing the need for Patanjali to demonstrate concrete actions towards correcting their misrepresentations. The court highlighted the importance of taking responsibility for past actions and not just offering apologies. The Supreme Court’s response suggests that a mere apology would not suffice to resolve the issues raised by the Indian Medical Association regarding the false claims made by Patanjali about the efficacy of their products against various diseases and their criticisms of allopathic medicine. This ongoing scrutiny and the court’s demand for more substantial corrective measures indicate a critical stance towards ensuring that public health communications are accurate and responsible, especially from such influential entities. Baba Ramdev and Acharya Balkrishna must demonstrate genuine corrective actions and align with legal advertising practices.

Perspective and call to action

Patanjali Ayurved has played a significant role in promoting Ayurveda globally, bringing ancient Indian holistic health practices into modern relevance. The company, under the leadership of Baba Ramdev and Acharya Balkrishna, has been instrumental in advocating for natural and herbal products, aligning with India’s cultural heritage and the growing global trend towards natural health products. Patanjali has contributed economically by creating jobs and supporting local agriculture through its extensive use of herbal ingredients sourced from within India.

However, the recent developments involving Patanjali underscores the imperative for the Ayurveda community at large to embrace practices that ensure trust and adherence to ethical standards. For Ayurveda to grow and be recognized as a valuable and credible contributor to global health and wellness, the Community needs to pay attention and focus on a few major initiatives. These initiatives aim to guide the community in upholding the dignity of Ayurvedic traditions while navigating the modern health landscape responsibly.

In the spirit of fostering trust and upholding the integrity of the Ayurveda, here are some recommendations that could be beneficial for Ayurvedic practitioners and organizations:

1. Strengthen Scientific Validation:
   Engage in or sponsor research studies that explore the efficacy of Ayurvedic treatments. This will provide evidence-based backing for Ayurvedic practices, products and claims, enhancing credibility among the wider medical community and the public.
2. Focus on Compliance and Review Processes:
   Establish a robust compliance framework that includes thorough review processes for all promotional and informational materials to ensure they adhere to legal standards and ethical advertising practices. This includes vetting claims with scientific evidence and legal guidelines before public dissemination.
3. Enhance Transparency:
   Establish a robust compliance framework that includes thorough review processes for all promotional and informational materials to ensure they adhere to legal standards and ethical advertising practices. This includes vetting claims with scientific evidence and legal guidelines before public dissemination.
4. Enhance Transparency:
   Improve transparency by disclosing the scientific basis of product claims more openly. This could involve publishing research or collaborating with academic institutions to validate the product’s health benefits.
5. Engage in Public Education:
   Initiate educational campaigns to inform the public about Ayurveda’s principles and practices, clearly distinguishing between general wellness advice and specific medical treatments. These campaigns should aim to educate without making overstated claims about curing diseases.
6. Collaborate with Modern Medicine Healthcare Professionals:
   To bridge the gap between traditional Ayurvedic practices and modern medicine, we should foster partnerships with medical communities, including conducting joint research projects and participating in medical conferences to build trust and credibility.
7. Commit to Ethical Marketing:
   Revising marketing strategies to focus on the holistic and preventive aspects of Ayurveda rather than curative claims could help maintain the market presence responsibly. This includes avoiding comparisons that disparage other medical practices.
8. Implement Community Feedback Mechanisms:
   Establishing mechanisms to receive and incorporate feedback from consumers and health practitioners can help the Ayurveda community stay aligned with consumer protection laws and societal expectations.

These steps could help not only comply with the legal regulations but also enhance brand integrity and consumer trust, ultimately contributing to the sustainable growth of the Ayurvedic industry globally.

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DECOLONIZING RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Can Hindus study Hinduism critically or are they regarded as naive and non-critical because they see themselves as Hindus? These questions were the essence of a recent webinar discussion that focused on the persistent perception in the academia that Hindus cannot critically analyze and describe their own epistemology and hence intervention, followed by re-interpretation, by the Western academic scholars is needed. Western methods of “studying” Hinduism and other Dharmic cultures and traditions, are invariably based on the presumed notion of a primitive nature of their objects of study. This primitiveness has become an unquestionable first principle, through the ordering of cultures and civilizations on a scale of development, promoted by enlightenment era thinkers. Hinduism’s ‘ancientness’ cannot be disputed, and since ancientness connotes primitiveness automatically in the western paradigm, contemporary Hindus get automatically labelled, as ‘ancient’, ‘uncritical’ and ‘naïve’ i.e., they have not yet attained the so-called critical consciousness of the West. This was the argument of the colonial era, which justified systematic plunder of India, in the name of a civilizing mission.

This inherent bias entrenched in academia and the resulting adverse assessments and judgements cast on Hinduism from this research methodology have remained unquestioned for too long. The argument is also used to exclude Hindus from the domain of academic studies of Hinduism unless they too embrace the western paradigm of casting Hinduism as primitive. Ethnography, as a method of research, has too often been used, and continues to be used to portray ‘primitivity’ in its exotic and graphic detail. The question is, can this be changed? Can ethnography, which has been a formal subject area, itself be transformed so as to potentially rectify the issue at hand? Are there good ethnographic studies that can counter bad ethnographic studies and rectify the errors of the past? Or is the method of ethnography itself fundamentally flawed?

Webinar Recap

“The ways in which scientific research is implicated in the worst excesses of colonialism remains a powerful remembered history for many of the world’s colonized peoples. It is a history that still offends the deepest sense of our humanity.1”

In this webinar Decolonizing Research Methodologies, Dr. Indu Viswanathan and Kalyan Viswanathan discuss the problem of research methodologies practiced by most of the academia today in the west and in westernized institutions in Bharat. In this paradigm, Hindu researchers who are practicing members of their denomination somehow are presumed to not have the authority (i.e., adhikara) to study their own traditions and cultures due to the presumptive loss of subject-object distinction along with loss of objectivity. This provides an immense latitude for projection of an Etic perspective on the culture under investigation, and to place itself in a privileged vantage point that then describes the Hindu cosmology as primitive, stagnant, and hierarchical and oppressive. This outmoded form of research can trace its origins to colonial times, when the west was convinced about its unassailable superiority, culturally, economically, religiously, and militarily. But this method largely continues to be in play today.

Currently, all the disciplines of social sciences and humanities in the westernized universities are based on knowledge produced and epistemic privilege assumed by researchers from just five countries2: England, France, Germany, Italy and USA. The provincial ideas developed by this group on various subjects leading up to philosophy have been universalized to become the lens through which every other culture and tradition has been studied by them. This model has become pervasive and entrenched in academia over time. However, recent trends in studies in decolonization suggest that scholars from indigenous and non-dominant communities are beginning to question the validity of the prevailing methods and in fact, are starting to redefine the methods of research too. As an example of this perspective shift, Dr. Viswanathan pointed out even though Native Americans in the US are much smaller in number today, they have collectively made significant progress in their ability to articulate and advocate for changes to the ways their communities are studied and reported.

There is also a gap between the way practicing Hindus and the broader academia view our ancient texts. Hindus tend to revere the extensive body of knowledge and insights generated by its peoples and various sampradayas and these are incorporated in daily life in multitude forms. On the other hand, academia tends to view the same texts through the lens of ‘primitivity’ to downright irrelevance to modernity. The power of influence from current academia might seem formidable, but Dr. Viswanathan offered actionable suggestions for the Hindu community to consider.

1. Question Etic scholarship about its research efforts – methods, motives, reporting formats and use of research findings.
2. Investigate and question how data has been used in particular ways to develop a narrative and explore ways to reclaim the data and its meanings.
3. Dedicate time and effort in understanding what it means to be a member of the indigenous (minority) community. Liberate oneself from the clutches of perceived metrics of success and re-cast them in innovative and more meaningful ways.
4. Establish a review body consisting of interested and Emic individuals that can develop parameters for acceptable data collection protocols that are lawful, transparent, and respectful of the subjects. This review body should also have the authority to call out work standard violations committed by scholars.

Dr. Viswanathan advocated for increases in scholarship endeavor encompassing research and publication activities across disciplines such as education, ethnography, and media. When skillfully done, the authentic Emic based work will help, over time, drive tangible changes to the current colonial era-based perceptions to a more authentic, truthful representation of the Hindu cosmology.

Herein lies a great opportunity provided by the HUA platform, that is being developed by a solid group of scholars who have demonstrated their originality of thought and deep commitment to high-quality academic work. Is it not time, for the Hindu community to not just recognize this problem and provide an Emic perspective within the framework of academic research, but pave the pathway for reclaiming both their agency and their narrative, about themselves and their culture.

The webinar recording can be found here: Webinar Replay.

For more information about HUA, visit https://hua.edu.

References

1. Linda Tuhiwai Smith (2021), Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Zed Books, Kindle edition), Introduction.

2. Grosfoguel, Ramón (2013) “The Structure of Knowledge in Westernized Universities: Epistemic Racism/Sexism and the Four Genocides/Epistemicides of the Long 16th Century,” Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge: Vol. 11: Iss. 1, Article 8. Available at: http://scholarworks.umb.edu/humanarchitecture/vol11/iss1/8.

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This is a two part blog. The first part was published here – Adhikara Sadhaka. 

The Significance of Antaḥkaraṇa Śuddhi in the Pursuit of Mokṣa.

For a mumukṣu or seeker of Brahman, stabilizing the material body is necessary for success on the path to realization. Without a healthy body, neither the focus nor commitment required to pursue this parā vidya or the highest knowledge is possible. In fact, the Upanishads advocate the physical strength and health of the sharīra as prerequisites for study. But, once the physical body is stabilized, the subtle body must also be made steady. Higher elevation, purpose, and awareness come only through the advancement of the subtle body.

A significant component of the subtle body is the antaḥkaraṇa. Commonly simplified to mean “the mind,” antaḥkaraṇa comes from the Sanskrit compound: “antar,” meaning interior or within, and “karaṇa,” meaning sense organ or cause. Therefore, antaḥkaraṇa is the inner cause or internal organ that controls the entire psychological process, including emotions.

The antaḥkaraṇa is constituted of four psychological faculties:

• Manas – the mind
• Buddhi – the intellect
• Ahaṃkāra – the ego
• Citta – memory

“Shuddhi” translates from Sanskrit to mean purification or freedom from defilement. Therefore, antaḥkaraṇa śuddhi means cleansing the inner organ (by removing unregulated sense desires) and preventing further desecration.

How has the Antaḥkaraṇa become impure?

Yama explains:

“अन्यच्छ्रेयोऽन्यदुतैव प्रेय- स्ते उभे नानार्थे पुरुषँ सिनीतः ।
तयोः श्रेय आददानस्य साधु भवति हीयतेऽर्थाद्य उ प्रेयो वृणीते ॥ 

anyacchreyo anyad utaiva preyaste ubhe nānārthe puruṣam sinītah tayọh śreya ādadānasya sādhu bhavati, hīyate rthad ya u preyovṛnīte

Different is the good, and different indeed is pleasant. These two, with different purposes, bind a man. Of these two, it is well for him who takes hold of the good, but he who chooses the pleasant fails of his aim.”

~ Kathopanishad 1.2.1

The physical body, directed by the subtle body, chases the world of sensual pleasures (the pleasant.) Jīvas, who, through avidya, identify as the śarīra (body,) have become bound by the pursuit of fleeting perceptions of pleasure^[1] associated with the śarira and the jagat. But the enjoyment of the phenomenal is transient, and due to the law of diminishing returns, consumption results in decreased satisfaction. And so, the more we consume, the less “happiness” it brings, resulting in more abundant and intense stimulation being sought. This sullies the antahkaraṇa and further entangles the jīva in a web of sense desires. Consequently, the jīva does not find an apparent escape from saṃsāra to mokṣa.

How does one attain Antaḥkaraṇa Śuddhi?

Descartes said, “I think therefore I am.”  However, vedānta advocates that existence precedes thought. By understanding the four functions of the antaḥkaraṇa, the seeker becomes more conscious of what is happening within his internal organ and what drives his behaviors.

How the Antaḥkaraṇa works

1. The Manas: The mind is the seat of desire which controls will or resolution (saṃkalpa). It interacts with the senses and receives external stimuli. Due to saṃskāras developed and strengthened over many lifetimes, the manas decides whether an experience is desirable (rāga) or displeasing (dveṣa.)  The manas sends the information about the experiences to the buddhi for processing.
2. The Buddhi: The buddhi is the intellect that uses the power of discrimination (viveka) to express rational control over decision-making. A reciprocal relationship exists between viveka and parā-vidya. The ability to differentiate between the real and unreal, permanent, and temporary, self and other-than-self comes from knowledge. Conversely, the greater the knowledge, the stronger the power of viveka.
3. The Ahaṃkāra: “Aham” means I, and “kāra” means to do with. The ahaṃkāra, which results from avidya, causes the Ātma (Self) to identify with the body as “I”—the doer. It builds a unique sense of identity, separating Ātma from Paramātma. Once the ahamkāra takes on an independent individuality (ego) and sense of “I-ness,” the buddhi is subjected to that identity and functions only in that context.
4. The Citta: The citta is the higher mind or consciousness that acts as the storehouse of the jīva’s karmas and samskāras over lifetimes and carries their imprints from birth to birth. This build-up of impressions on the mind prevents the self from perceiving anything in its true state—even its own self. To overcome this ignorance, it is necessary to cleanse the citta.

The buddhi receives the information from the manas and analyzes it using reasoning, allowing a choice to be made rather than simply responding to the experience. The manas and buddhi’s continuous activity is choosing between the right, the good, and the pleasant^[2]. When the buddhi becomes silent, there is no viveka or discrimination.

The sensual desire-driven manas and ahamkāra work together to circumvent the buddhi and guide our actions towards sense-enjoyment that strengthen saṃskāras and reinforce a separate sense of identity.

Reshaping the Antaḥkaraṇa Shuddhi = Untying Knots

We are told that the antaḥkaraṇa resides within the heart. The Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad speaks about the knots we tie within the heart.

We’re all often in the process of tying knots^[3] through saṃskāras. When the sense organs encounter sense objects, an experience is created, and there is a reaction in the manas. This includes likes, dislikes, frustration, sorrow, anger, fear, insecurity, loneliness, etc. The response toward our experiences defines the knots of our hearts, including the rāga-dveṣas, sukha (happiness), and duḥkha (sorrow). Knots become tighter by repeating the experiences and our reactions. The continuous pursuit of rāgas and avoidance of dveṣas keeps the manas preoccupied with the senses, unable to fix its aspirations for higher goals.

The knots of our saṃskāras must be acknowledged and observed before we can deal with them. This happens through meditation and contemplation, removing the mind from the chaos of the external world and going into stillness and silence. It is only then that we can observe the mind and move beyond the mind.

To untie the knots, one must reign in the senses and reduce the repetition of desire-driven karmas, as that is the root of the creation of saṃskāras. The ignorance of the ahaṃkāra must be removed, allowing the seeker to see things the way they are.

Understanding that one has the choice to exercise discrimination due to managing the faculties of the antaḥkaraṇa is the empowerment that the seeker needs to begin his ascent out of saṃsāra. Rather than acting mechanically as though programmed by saṃskāras and unaware of his role in building these samskāras, the vijñānavān^[4] applies his discriminating intellect and holds himself accountable through knowledge of the antaḥkaraṇa. He directs the intellect to move the manas away from pursuing sensual pleasures. This reduces the ego and eventually dissolves the sense of identity through knowledge of the Self. The seeker can understand the cause of undesirable personality traits, rāgas, dweṣas, fears, and compulsions and intercept and influence them. In so doing, he becomes mindful that he is not the body, nor the (functions of the) mind, but rather, the Sākṣi or witness—the one who is aware of them. He becomes a samanaska or one endowed with a controlled mind.

यस्तु विज्ञानवान्भवति समनस्कः सदा शुचिः ।
स तु तत्पदमाप्नोति यस्माद्भूयो न जायते ॥ 

yas tu vijñānavān bhavati samanaskaḥ sadā śuci sa tu tat padam āpnoti yasmāt bhūyo na jāyate

That (master of the chariot), however, who is associated with a discriminating intellect, and being endowed with a controlled mind, is ever pure and attains that goal from which he is not born again.

~ Kathopanishad 1.3.8)

As avidyā is overcome by knowledge of the Self, the antaḥkaraṇa is purified by meditation and contemplation through which the subtle body progresses. This purification prepares the self for the knowledge of Brahman without distraction or deviation. The association of the intellect with the mind and the sense organs is harmonious and self-restrained. The sādhaka, who has a clean, pure, and developed antaḥkaraṇa, and whose mind is unpolluted and concentrated, does not need to go towards sense-gratification from external stimuli but turns inward to his heart for the full experience of Brahman.

[1] Bhagavad Gita 2.14 describes how fleeting perceptions of happiness and distress arise from contact between the sense organs and sense objects.

[2] Kathopanishad 1.2.2

[3] Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.9 references the knots of the heart

[4] Kathopanishad 1.3.6

The post Antahkarana Shuddhi for Moksha – Part II appeared first on Hindu University of America.

Crow’s Teeth

Now that you are reading, I assume the title ‘Crow’s Teeth’ piqued your interest. Birds do not have teeth, at least the modern ones, and crows, for sure, do not have them. So, what is the phrase doing as a title in a HUA blog? The term is referenced in two texts – Nyāya Mañjarī and Āyurveda Dīpikā. There is not much to this amusing term other than that these texts say investigating crow’s teeth is a superficial and uninteresting endeavor. These texts emphasize the importance of communicating the utility of the subject of a discourse lucidly. By discourse I mean written work like treatises and verbal work like expositions.

Nyāya Mañjarī is viewed as an independent work on Nyāya philosophy written in the 10^th century (CE). Jayanta Bhaṭṭa, the author, was a poet, logician, scholar, and adviser to Kashmiri King Śaṅkara Varman of the Utpala dynasty. Though the work is independent, Jayanta based it on Nyāya Sūtra of ṛṣi Akṣapāda by selecting important topics and defending the essential features of the philosophy. Jayanta’s other prominent contribution to the world of Indian Knowledge Systems is his commentary on ṛṣi Pāṇini’s Ashtādhyāyī – a treatise on Sanskṛt grammar. While defending ṛṣi Akṣapāda, Jayanta uses the phrase crow’s teeth. J.V. Bhattacharya, in his translation (see references below) translates the words of Jayanta as follows (page 10):

Even a sentence which conveys sense, having its constituent words mutually connected, should be rejected as worthless if it answers no purpose like the following interrogatory one: “Are the teeth of crow good or bad?”

Āyurveda Dīpikā is an authoritative commentary on Caraka Saṁhitā written in the 11^th century. Cakrpāṇi Datta, who authored the text, was an Āyurvedic practitioner and scholar from the Bengal region of India. Caraka Saṁhitā by Agniveśa, Suśruta Saṁhitā by Suśruta, and Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya of Vāgbhaṭa are recognized as Bṛhat-Trayi – the “Great Trio” of Āyurvedic texts. Cakrpāṇi, in his commentary, supplied grammatical, philosophical, and syntactic interpretations of complicated and technical terms (Sharma, R.K. and Dash, Bhagwan, page xl). In addition, Cakrpāṇi justified the arrangement of sections, chapters, and even statements in the chapters. The phrase Crow’s Teeth becomes relevant in this context. Sharma and Bhagwan, in their translations (see references below) translate Cakrpāṇi’s words as:

Intelligent people are not motivated towards (the study of) something indistinct like “ka,” ca,” “ta,” “pa,” etc., nor even towards something distinct but useless examination of the teeth of a crow.” (page 4)

As I pointed out earlier, the phrase “Crow’s Teeth” itself is unimportant. The point driven by both Cakrpāṇi and Jayanta – subject, object, and treatise relationship and that is the significant idea of this blog. Vedantasāra, another text succinctly captures this relationship as anubandha catuṣṭaya. 

Jayanta’s point

Jayanta delivers a stunning technical explanation of Akṣapāda’s first Nyāya Sūtra. The sutra goes as:

        pramāṇa-prameya- saṅśaya -prayojana-dṛṣṭānta-siddhāntāvayava-
        tarka-nirṇaya-vāda-jalpa-vitaṇḍā-hetvābhāsa-cchalajāti-
        nigrahasthānānāṃ tattvajñānān niḥśreyasādhigamaḥ. [1.1.1]

It is the knowledge of the real essence (or true character) of the following sixteen categories that leads to the attainment of the Highest Good – 1) The means of Right Cognition, 2) The objects of the Right Cognition, 3) Doubt, 4) Motive, 5) Example, 6) Theory, 7) Factors of Inference, 8) Cognition, 9) Demonstrated Truth, 10), Discussion, 11) Disputation, 12) Wrangling, 13) Fallacious Reason, 14) Casuistry 15) Futile Rejoinder and 16) Clinchers [Mahāmahopādhyāya Gaṅganatha Jhā translation]

He raises questions for potential objectors and answers them with a flourish. He devotes time to the purpose and effectiveness of the first sentence and general openings of a treatise.

He drives the point that to encourage the listeners of a treatise, it is essential to lay out the subject, broad divisions of the content, and the end goals at the beginning of any written work. He sees that scholars would not consent to hearing something if they were not informed of the broad outline of the subject, as the utility of hearing the treatise remains unknown.

Having introduced that the utility of a treatise is an important motivator for the listeners, Jayanta tries to answer how to prove that utility at the beginning. Jayanta questions the notion whether a mere statement of the utility of a treatise is a good enough motivator. He points out the problem that to know the utility of a discourse, we need to listen to it but to read the treatise, we should first understand its utility. He concludes that the first sentence of a treatise informs the listener about its utility, motivating him to listen to the whole treatise. Jayanta dives into the psychological condition of the listener or reader, who only partially accepts the utility, by saying that there might be doubt of the validity of the proposed utility. However, their mind is convinced to study the treatise to confirm the author’s exposition. He further sees that humans tend to pursue an activity destined to yield positive outcomes that are easy to perform. If the positive result is achievable, intelligent humans will figure it out within a few days.

Jayanta cautions us on the futility of scrutinizing the results before the action has been performed as such a preemptive tendency impedes progress to understanding. This might sound familiar with modern phrase analysis paralysis. He adds an analogy of how a sick person should not doubt the prescriptions given by a physician and the harm of following instructions. He concludes that the learner, having read the utility, should devote his best attention and sincerity to studying the explained subject before deciding on its usefulness.

Jayanta highlights the importance of the first sentence of a treatise saying the purpose or usefulness in a meaningful way. In this context, he brings up the useless characteristic of the question, “Are the teeth of a crow good or bad?” Jayanta believes the first sentence should attract listeners or readers and silence hostile critics. His conviction is that the first sentence can create the necessary doubt in the mind of the listeners or readers to explore the topic and find for themselves if the author was correct.

He summarizes that it is essential to tell the relationship between the treatise and its content, between the content and the results.

Cakrpāṇi’s point

Cakrpāṇi is commenting on the first verse of the first chapter, Dīrgha Jīvatīyam – (Quest for Longevity) of Caraka Saṁhitā. He explains that Caraka, to make it easy for the readers, brought in the subject, object, and relationship as stimuli for the readers. He adds that intelligent people are unmotivated to study something like the Sanskṛt alphabet. Sanskṛt consonants are arranged in rows called Varga, and each row is affixed a label based on the starting alphabet in that row. Next, he points out that intelligent people are not interested in a useless examination of a crow’s teeth.

Cakrpāṇi deems it necessary to specify the subject and object of a treatise at the beginning because if the relationship were not stated, it does not stimulate a learner. Cakrpāṇi contends that the above relationship is conveyed by the phrase “Dīrgha Jīvatīyam” and that Caraka elaborates on it later in the text. He considers the motivator “usefulness” for the treatise as motivating for its learners to study. He contends that mere enumeration of the object does not yield the treatise learner to learn its usefulness. He chastises some works where the author lists the objects but does not deliver on the promise. The author’s credibility alone does not suffice because the learner might be unable to discern the credibility. This leads to a circular problem similar to how Jayanta had described the issue – that a learner will not be attracted to a treatise without knowing its usefulness, and the effectiveness of the treatise cannot be decided unless the learner is drawn to the treatise and studies it.

Cakrpāṇi, so then, arrives at the next motivator, “doubt,” that could attract the learner to the treatise. There are two types of doubts, he goes on to say – a general doubt on the effectiveness of the treatise and another about the specific object of study. He drops the former type of doubt as less motivating than the latter and he does not provide supporting reasons for that perspective. Nevertheless, one can reasonably assume it is because the human mind is better able to understand specific and concrete objects and relationships than general ones.

Cakrpāṇi concludes that telling the utility of the treatise via its relationships is more accessible for its learners to understand and start studying it.

Vedantasāra

I have not encountered the phrase “crow’s teeth” in my other reading. However, the concept of saying the subject, connection of the topic to the treatise, and utility or necessity appears in other works and we can examine this concept in Vedantasāra.

Vedantasāra is a well-known Prakaraṇa Grantha on Advaita philosophy from the 15th century. It was composed by Sadānanda Yogīndra Sarasvatī and it is a revered text that follows traditional pedagogical methods.

Right at the beginning of the work, in verse five, Sadānanda introduces the concept of Anubandha. The verse is:

tatra anubandho nāma adhikāri viṣya saṁbandaprayojanāni [verse 5]

The preliminary questions of Vedanta are the determination of the competency of the student, the subject matter, its connection with the book and the necessity for its study [Swāmī Nikhilānanda translation].

Anubandha has four components: the qualification of a student, subject matter, connection of the subject with the treatise, and the necessity of the treatise. This is popularly known as anubandha catuṣṭaya and can be depicted as below.

Conclusion

We can apply these concepts to any formal discourse or writing. It is essential to clearly state the subject and end results to create an interest in the reader. Apart from increasing this curiosity, this framework which was analyzed and developed by our ancestors, encourages the author to be reflective and use rigor. In an information dissemination format such as this blog, a seemingly irrelevant phrase hook “crow’s teeth” would suffice for the readers to begin reading

References

English translations of all the texts were consulted for this writing and where it was critical, the original Sanskṛt texts were also studied to ensure correctness in meaning and interpretation.

1. Caraka Saṁhitā by Agnivesa (redacted by Carka and Dṛḍhabala)
2. Nyāya Mañjarī by Jayanta Bhaṭṭa
3. Vedantasāra by Sadānanda Yogīndra

Translations

1. Sharma, R.K and Dash, Bhagwan, Caraka Saṁhitā [Text with English translation & critical exposition based on Cakrpāṇi Datta’s Āyurveda Dīpikā ], Vol I, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 2023
2. Bhattacharya, Janaki Vallabha, Jayanta Bhaṭṭa’s Nyāya Mañjarī [The Compendium of Indian Speculative Logic], Motilal Banarsi Dass, New Delhi, 1978
3. Swāmī Nikhilānanda, Vedantasāra (The Essence of Vedanta) of Sadānanda Yogīndra, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2021
4. Jha, Mahāmahopādhyāya Gaṅgānātha, Gautama’s Nyāya Sūtras [with Vātsyāyana Bhāṣya], Oriental Book Agency (Poona, 1939)

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About the eligibility of students who seek to know the knowledge of Brahman

Exploring The Upaniṣadic Understanding Of Adhikāri Sādhaka

Rooted in Saṃskṛtam, adhikāri means one who is empowered, authorized, qualified, fit for, and entitled to. Sādhaka, derived from the root word ‘sadh,’ means ‘to accomplish’ and refers to an efficient or skillful person. Therefore, an adhikāri sādhaka is not just any student but one who is qualified to receive the knowledge of Brahman.

In his commentary on Bhagavad Gita, Swami Dayananda Saraswati speaks of three types of students:

1. A vidyārthi is one who wishes to know but does not necessarily make an effort to find out
2. An antevāsi makes an effort by entering studies or a Gurukul but does not grasp the teachings effectively 
3. A śiṣya is one who is qualified to study and deserves to be taught because of his direction and commitment to the study

Based on this, we see alignment between the definitions of a śiṣya and an adhikāri sādhaka.

What are the qualifications for the study of Brahman?

Every Upaniṣad begins with a Śānti Pāth. Many of the mantras deal with the well-being of the mind and body before delving into philosophical discussions. At first glance, one thinks that the student is seeking a benediction. But, upon further contemplation, one realizes that the śloka is establishing the requirements for the study.

Anyone on the spiritual journey must nourish the body and mind to be instruments of learning. There can be no proper transfer of knowledge if this is not done. It is not just a prayer but a prerequisite, as a healthy body and mind increase one’s energy, ability, and capacity to know.

While those who experience ill health are not disqualified from the pursuit of this knowledge, their unwellness does pose apparent challenges. Focus, concentration, and stamina can be impeded when the mind pulls the intellect toward the distractions caused by bodily aches or mental diversions.

By closely contemplating the following Śānti Pāth, one can extrapolate various detailed requirements for an adhikāri sādhaka to pursue this path.

“ॐ भद्रं कर्णेभिः श‍ृणुयाम देवा भद्रं पश्येमाक्षभिर्यजत्राः ।
स्थिरैरङ्गैस्तुष्तुवासस्तनूभिर्व्यशेम देवहितं यदायुः॥
Aum, may we, O Gods, hear what is auspicious with our ears, oh you, who are worthy of worship, may we see with our eyes what is auspicious. May we enjoy the life allotted to us by the gods, offering praise, with our bodies strong of limbs.”

~ Prashna Upanishad, Śānti Pāth

• AUM: Aum is the Supreme Brahman, manifest and un-manifest. Therefore, the student first acknowledges that there is a Reality greater than the individual self.
• May we: The student desires the well-being of humankind, not just himself. Moving beyond the individual to the whole—from the particular to the general—signifies the dissolution of the ego. He understands that the well-being of all means the welfare of the one. This is a second requirement of an adhikāri sādhaka.
• Oh Gods: The student recognizes the Devtas as personifications of the senses. He can direct them (through karmas) and not just respond to them.
• Hear what is auspicious with our ears: The student understands that the senses and sense organs are tools for elevation, going beyond sense enjoyment.
• Oh, you who are worthy of worship: The student also understands that the senses are worthy of worship, not that he becomes their servant, but that he takes care of them and respects them as instruments for progression. The senses are not neglected because they are phenomenal.
• May we see with our eyes what is auspicious: The student regulates himself and has healthy consumption for the mind and the body—consumption that is not driven by the senses but by the desire for complete well-being.
• May we enjoy the life allotted to us by the gods: The student understands that while pursuing knowledge is a yajña (sacrifice), it does not mean a life of torment or deprivation. He carries within him the mindset of joy.
• Offering praise: The student understands that Bhagavān is the karma-phala-dāta and considers everything to be prasādam. He offers praise with an attitude of gratitude.
• With our bodies strong of limbs: He understands that the śarīra is the vehicle of the ātma, and a strong body is to be used for worship, not simply for pursuits of kāma.

It is noteworthy that gender does not restrict one from the pursuit of knowledge of Brahman. While male students typically populated the Gurukuls and were prominent drivers of the conversations within the Upaniṣads, questions from women such as Maitreyi and Gargi in the Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad, which lead to elaborate discussions on metaphysics, validate them as worthy adhikāri sādhakas.

This knowledge is not restricted to seekers belonging to any particular varna or societal status. In particular, “Brahma jānāti iti brāhmaṇaḥ” is sufficient as a qualification within itself.

Even age is not a deterrent illustrated by the Nachiketa-Yama dialogue in the Kathopaniṣad.

The Upaniṣad’s illustration of an ideal Adhikāri Sādhaka

To see a true example of an ideal student, one needs to look no further than Nachiketa in the Kathopaniṣad. The child goes to Yama (death)—the most qualified Guru—and requests that he imparts to him the highest knowledge (parā vidya). Nachiketa doesn’t ask for freedom from death (liberation) because his great intelligence has already allowed him to achieve this through his other boon. He asks for knowledge, perhaps for the benefit of humankind.

Nachiketa’s character is resultant of the Sādhana Chatuṣṭaya (four means of practice). He has the ability to apply viveka to discern between the real and unreal, permanent and temporary, self and non-self. Consequently, Nachiketa has developed vairāgya and has no attachment to worldly things despite the many enticements presented to him. His mumukṣutvam, or intense longing for enlightenment, keeps him determined towards the relentless pursuit of knowledge of Brahman.

Consequently, Nachiketa is the epitome of Ṣaṭsampat or six virtues, which seem to come to him as second nature. These merits support the sādhaka’s journey towards antaḥkaraṇa śuddhi by helping to purify and stabilize the mind, emotions, and thoughts.

Nachiketa demonstrates:

1. Śama: Tranquility, peace of mind – he does not get carried away by his father’s declaration that he would be given to Yama. 
2. Dama – the child has complete control over his senses and does not succumb to the material temptations offered by Yama.
3. Uparati – He has no desire for worldly pursuits and pleasures but remains persistent in his thirst for higher knowledge.
4. Titikṣa – Nachiketa exemplifies forbearance and tolerance. He patiently awaits Yama’s return for three days to get his questions answered.
5. Śraddha – The child exhibits an intense sense of clarity (or desire for clarity) and has faith that his Guru (Yama) will provide it. 
6. Samādhāna – Nachiketa shows concentration and steadiness, making him the ideal student. He is unequivocal on the questions he wants answered and is not swayed by the temptation for anything else.

What prevents one from becoming an Adhikāri Sādhaka?

Kathopaniṣad 1.2.24 says:

“नाविरतो दुश्चरितान्नाशान्तो नासमाहितः । नाशान्तमानसो वाऽपि प्रज्ञानेनैनमाप्नुयात् ॥ 

One who has not desisted from bad conduct, whose senses are not under control, whose mind is not concentrated, whose mind is not free from anxiety cannot attain this self through knowledge.”

Adhikāri sādhaka status is not achieved by chance or accident. Knowledge is not fully received without profound effort and commitment. Unless one is intentional and determined to do what is necessary, parā vidya and its resultant experience of the Self will not be achieved. There is no chance of knowledge of Brahman if one chooses an adharmic life, or one consumed with the relentless pursuit of sense desires. There must be a deliberate effort towards Antaḥkaraṇa śuddhi as the student prepares for the knowledge of the Self.

¹Bhagavad Gita: Home Study Course, Chapter 2 verse 7, Swami Dayananda Saraswati

²Brihadaranyaka 2.4.3

³Brihadaranyaka 3.6.1

⁴Brahma jānāti iti brāhmaṇaḥ – One who knows and realizes Brahman, the Absolute Truth, he is called Brāhmaṇa. https://prabhupadavani.org/transcriptions/bhagavad-gītā-41213 

⁵Kathopanishad 1.1.1 onwards

⁶Kathopanishad 1.1.20

⁷Antahkarna Shudhi, Viveka, Vairagya, Mumukshutva

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Is the Bhagavad Gita solely a manual for spiritual living? Are the Upanishads and other scriptures just esoteric readings? Can we derive leadership principles from Hindu scriptures to teach and guide us in our everyday corporate or professional lives? In an increasingly complex world faced with maniacal “celebrity” superstar promoters at one end of the employment spectrum to “quietly quitting” colleagues/team members at the other end, can we draw upon the sagacious wisdom contained in our ancient scriptures to help us operate and function optimally in the business world? In addition to our carefully developed resources of intelligence quotient (IQ) and emotional quotient (EQ), can we also build upon our “consciousness” quotient (CQ)?

Leadership Principles From Hindu Scriptures

A Personal Dilemma 

As a finance professional working in corporate India, I have personally reflected on methods—empathetic but still effective—to garner the enthusiasm and support of my team members during trying business times. At other moments, I have been anxiously searching for answers to persuade peers in management to align with wider corporate goals that are sustainable in the long run in contrast to narrow short-term departmental goals.

A leader is influenced by the culture he or she is born in; the nuances of his or her culture will shape the leadership role and style. Rather than blindly copying an aggressive Western management style, I constantly wondered if there was an alternative approach to leadership—one that was more rooted in the Hindu culture. 

In my intrepid search, I was delighted to read a scholarly document authored by Shriram Sarvotham from the study material shared by the HUA in the course “Orientation to Hindu Studies.” This enlightening essay is sourced from the book whose title says it succinctly: “Inclusive Leadership – Perspectives from Tradition and Modernity”.

Shriram Sarvotham states that Yogic wisdom from authoritative yoga texts enunciates systematic methods to cultivate fundamental leadership attributes. His specific references to Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and the Upanishads inspire wonder at the deep levels of practical wisdom that abound in the Hindu culture.

The author starts with the premise that the fundamental trait of a leader is his or her ability to influence people in their thoughts, words, and actions. The leader’s persuasive power inspires people to take action towards the chosen ideals, goals, and objectives. The art of persuasion has three distinct attributes namely, satyam (appeal to one’s credibility), yukti (appeal to the intellect) and karuna (appeal to the emotions). In the Indian tradition, Yogic wisdom from authoritative yoga texts such as Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras enunciates systematic methods to cultivate these triune attributes of satyam, yukti, and karuna.

Satyam: the inner work

Satyam is the power that comes from personal ethics and the pursuit of excellence. Satyam provides credibility to the leader and creates an aura of powerful presence. The words of one who has cultivated satyam carry enormous weight. They have the power to deeply influence people.

Maharishi Patanjali states:
सत्यप्रतिष्ठायां क्रियाफलाश्रयत्वम् ॥
satya pratiṣṭhāyāṃ kriyā phalāśrayatvam
For one who is established in truth, their vision becomes manifest
(Yoga Sutra, 2.36)

“Speak Truth to Power” is an oft-repeated quote—a maxim that resonated deeply within me. As the financial head of an organization, I internalized this maxim—particularly when reporting financial details and results to shareholders and stakeholders.

The author expands on the meaning of satyam as being much more than speaking truthfully; it refers to the core ethical value of integrity. A leader can claim to be true to their ideals only by integrating them into their own lives and by living them. In addition to gaining the power to manifest a vision as stated by Patanjali, living a life of satyam accrues credibility. Others trust the words and actions of the leader once the credibility is firmly established.

In short, living the highest, most excellent version of oneself builds satyam.

Yukti: clarity of perception and expression

Yukti is the appeal to logic. Yukti builds a cogent, coherent, and clear flow of ideas that convince the intellect. Before articulating these ideas to others, a leader must convince himself or herself first. In the Yoga Sutras, Maharishi Patanjali provides the analogy of a flawless crystal (abhijātasyeva mani [Yoga Sutra, 1.41])—as a metaphor to depict the state of mind of a yogi.

The author states that oftentimes, the intellect is muddied and dulled by laziness or even stupor. One can think of this as a veil of darkness that envelops the brilliance of the intellect, thereby eclipsing it. This darkness, termed tamas in yoga, is like the dark smoke that clouds the inner light from shining forth.

A well-known mantra from the Upanishads states:
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय ।
tamaso mā jyotirgamaya
Lead me from darkness to light
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad; Nikhilananda trans.).

Yoga practices provide many methods to clear the tamas and allow the inner light of the intellect to shine forth. Patanjali says:
ततः क्षीयते प्रकाशावरणम् ॥
tataḥ kṣīyate prakāsha avaraṇam
Pranayama removes the dark covering of avaranas [tamas] and allows the inner light to shine forth
(Yoga Sutra, 2.52)

As tamas is lifted and clarity dawns, the leader invokes the tremendous power of the intellect. He is able to use this power to prove the truth of his ideas and convince others of the same.

Karuna: the heart-to-heart connection

Whereas yukti provides a dispassionate appeal to the intellect, karuna ignites passion by connecting with the heart. Unless we touch the other’s heart, we cannot win their full support. A leader provides a space of harmony in which others are made to feel valued and appreciated.

The author states that the first step towards connecting with people at this deeper level is to respect them. According to yoga, respecting another is achieved by acknowledging and honoring the divine presence in them. The Bhagavad Gita states:
ईश्वरः सर्व-भूतानां हृद्-देशेऽर्जुन तिष्ठति ।
īśvaraḥ sarva bhūtānām hṛd deśe arjuna tiṣṭhati
The divine resides in the heart of all beings
(BG 18.61)

When we acknowledge this divine presence in another, we elevate them in our eyes and see them as the precious beings that they are. We value them. Furthermore, a leader does not see another being as inferior. Each one is a divine being who is respected and appreciated, and whose contribution is valued.

In addition to the three factors related to influencing capabilities of an individual, Patanjali offers the following remarkable wisdom, which reveals a profound method for connecting with others:
मैत्रीकरुणामुदितोपेक्षाणां सुखदुःखपुण्यापुण्यविषयाणां भावनातश्चित्तप्रसादनम् ॥
maitrī karuṇa mudita upekṣāṇāṃ
sukha duḥkha puṇya apuṇya viṣayāṇāṃ
bhāvanātaḥ citta prasādanam
Be friendly to those who are happy; be compassionate to those who are sad, appreciate those who are doing good work, and overlook the mistakes of others
(Yoga Sutra, 1.33)

Using these four bhāvanas (ways to connect) for the four types of people, as enunciated by Patanjali, the leader always remains connected with others and evokes their full potential.

Summary

The three virtues of inspirational leadership—namely, satyam, yukti and karuna—make the leader highly influential. Satyam builds the power of credibility of the leader by using the principles of ethics and excellence. Yukti express the scientific and intellectual side of the leader that helps him or her appeal to other’s intellect. Karuna awakens the artistic and compassionate side of the leader, by which he or she sees beauty in others and values them. As in all powerful combinations, the coming together of satyam, yukti, and karuna creates great synergy: the whole is far greater than the sum of its parts. In other words, the leader who embodies all three virtues has extraordinary power to influence others and potentially transform the world. The wisdom and practices contained in the classic yoga scriptures such as the Patanjali Yoga Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita provide valuable tools to cultivate satyam, yukti, and karuna.

This brilliant exposition by Dr. Shriram Sarvotham has provoked active interaction with my immediate team members. We have expanded the dialog by researching further writings on the theme “Leadership Principles from Hindu Scriptures.”

The post Leadership Principles from Hindu Scriptures appeared first on Hindu University of America.

By learning the ‘ought’s’ of life, we can lead a good life, but this does not make us free of suffering. Even a so-called ‘good’ person maybe plagued with troubles such as anger, envy, jealousy, disease and old age and, ultimately, death. Being a good person is not enough; something more is required. It is to teach this ‘something more’ that Vālmīki wrote the Yogavasistha. In fact, one can properly understand the popular Rāmāyaṇa only by reading the Yogavāsiṣṭha.

The sheer volume of the Yogavāsiṣṭha is enough to deter most readers. It is stated in the Yogavasistha itself that it consists of 32,000 verses divided into six books (Prakaraṇams), namely: the Vairāgya Prakaraṇam, the Mumukṣuvyavahāra Prakaraṇam, the Utpatti Prakaraṇam, the Sthiti Prakaraṇam, the Upaśama Prakaraṇam, the Nirvāṇa Prakaraṇam (Pūrvārdha) and the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam (Uttarārdha). The number of verses is, in fact, much less. In the introduction to Śrimadvālmīkimahaṛṣṭpraṇītaḥ Yogavāsiṣṭhaḥ, G. V. Tagare puts the number at 23,734 verses.¹

The first book, the Vairāgya Prakaraṇam, describes Rāma’s disillusionment with the world. The issue discussed here is whether jñāna (knowledge of the self) or karma (work, effort) is more important in attaining liberation from the misery of the world. The answer is that both are equally important, just as a bird needs both wings to fly.

The Mumukṣuvyavahāra Prakaraṇam is about the qualities of true seekers of liberation and their mental attitude. How the world was created and how it evolved is discussed in the Utpatti Prakaraṇam. The Sthiti Prakaraṇam talks about the preservation of the universe. The world appears to be real, but with the realization of Brahman, the mind is silenced and the world appears as nothing but Brahman. The Upaśama Prakaraṇam is about quieting the mind through proper understanding; the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam, as the name suggests, is about ultimate freedom. It suggests that knowledge of the self is the best way to break free from the miseries of the world.

It has to be pointed out that the structure of the Yogavasistha is very loose, and apart from the first Prakaraṇam, almost all the major themes are discussed and repeated throughout this mammoth text. As to the division of chapters within each Prakaraṇam, again there seems to be no order. Some chapters have as few as six verses, while others run into hundreds. Often a chapter ends abruptly, and the discussion is continued in the next chapter and the next. Often, while one concept is being discussed, there is a sudden digression and another topic begins. Later the speaker returns to the previous conversation. The Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam is as large as the first five combined. For some reason it is itself divided into two huge sections: the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam (Pūrvārdha) and the Nirvāņa Prakaraṇam (Uttarārdha).

Interlaced with the dialogue are approximately fifty-five allegorical stories and stories within stories to illustrate the philosophical matters discussed. Here again, certain stories are told in about ten verses, while others, such as that of Cudālā, stretch over several chapters.

All these stories and subplots make it difficult for the modern reader to keep track of who is speaking to whom. For instance, the Yogavasistha begins with a Brahmin named Sutīkṣṇa who goes to the sage Agasti and asks about ways to get out of the misery of the world. To answer his question, Agasti tells him the story of Kāruṇya, a very learned man, well-versed in the scriptures, who has lost interest in life. Noticing this, his father tells him the story of King Ariṣtanemi, who is sent to Vālmīki for the resolution of his sorrows. Vālmīki then tells Ariṣtanemi the story of Rāma’s dialogue with Vasiṣṭha.

Encyclopedic in its scope, the Yogavāsiṣṭha deals with ontology, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and psychology. The underlying philosophy of the Yogavasistha is predominantly of Advaita Vedānta. There are several verses of the Yogavāsiṣṭha which are also found in other Upanişads and the Bhagavadgītā. B. L. Atreya made an exhaustive comparative chart, and believed that being a voluminous scripture the Yogavāsiṣṭha may not have been freely available in the days when books were written by hand. Anthologists must have picked up some useful verses from it and used them to create new Upanişads.²

Yogavasistha Core philosophy

Although the Yogavāsiṣṭha is voluminous, its central message can be expressed in a few statements: Nothing exists except absolute consciousness (also called universal consciousness or Brahman), and the world is the imagination of this universal consciousness. The universal consciousness is absolute and perfect. All change happens in the phenomenal world, (which has no independent existence, as it is just an imagination of absolute consciousness). All the beings of the world are no different from the universal consciousness, as they emerged out of it. All the misery that is experienced by individual beings happens because they mistakenly identify themselves with their body and forget that they are essentially the same as the universal consciousness, Brahman. Since misery arises out of ignorance of the self, it ends with knowledge of the self. Ajātivāda says that the world was never created (aja) as it is imaginary or illusory. What can we say about the origin of a thing that is imaginary? It was there always as imagination of absolute Brahman, hence we cannot ask the question when it was born. Only Brahman truly exists, and Brahman or the absolute is non-dual.

The scriptures are words of the enlightened to awaken those who are taking their dream to be real. Once we wake from the dream, we realize that nothing has to be gained because nothing was ever lost. No one has to be liberated because there was no bondage in the first place as the absolute can never be bound. 

न बन्धोऽस्ति न मोक्षोऽस्ति देहिनः परमार्थतः।
मिथ्येयमिन्द्रजालश्रि: संसारपरिवर्तिनी।।

^{Ultimately, there is neither bondage nor liberation for the self;
Illusion alone keeps all trapped in the vicious cycle of the world.3}

All that ends after knowledge dawns is the illusory world, not the eternally blissful self. Liberation and bliss are our intrinsic nature (svabhāva), and svabhāva means that which can never be taken away from us. The truth, therefore, is that the mind has no existence other than in the imagination of absolute. That absolute is not nothingness; it is complete and encompasses all, and whatever emerges from it is also absolute. 

पूर्णात्पूर्ण विसरति पूर्णे पूर्णे विराजते। 
पूर्णमेवोदितं पूर्णे पूर्णमेव व्यवस्थितम्।।

^{From the whole emerges the whole, and the whole is situated in the whole;
Thus, whatever is there in the whole exists in its wholeness.4}
Vasişţha relies solely on reason. He does not advocate any kind of blind faith, worship, or rituals. It is for this reason the Yogavasistha could have a tremendous appeal to any modern thinking person, provided they have the patience to listen to the full argument. No other Indian text analyses the human condition as thoroughly as the Yogavāsiṣṭha does. Vasiṣṭha himself says: 

यदिहास्ति तदन्यत्र यन्नेहास्ति न तत् क्वचित्।
इमं समस्तविज्ञानशास्त्रकोशं विदुर्बुधाः।।

^{What is in it is nowhere else, what is not in it is not elsewhere;}

^{Hence the learned have called it a repository of scriptures.5}
People normally think that those who seek self-liberation ought to withdraw from active life and lead the life of a hermit − praying, meditating, and performing rituals. Vedānta does not advocate this type of life. It says that you ought to go on doing whatever you are supposed to, but remember all the time that you are not the doer. Do everything with a sense of detachment and be unaffected by whatever is happening around you, just as a lotus grows in a pond without getting wet.

The Yogavasistha does not advocate worship of any kind, rituals, neither ablutions nor prayer to a deity, not even meditative techniques. It, however, seriously discourages escapism and laziness, and strongly advocates human effort. 

स्वपौरुषप्रयत्नेन  विवेकेन  विकासिना।
स देवो ज्ञायते राम न तप:सनानकर्मभि:।।

Through effort and maturity alone is the self known, Rāma,
Not through penance, holy bath, and other such actions.⁶ 

Rāma’s dialogue with Vasiṣṭha, after which Rāma becomes free of the miseries of the world. The book which narrates this dialogue is called the Yogavāsiṣṭha. It is said that one can become free of worldly miseries merely by reading the Yogavasistha.

After Vālmīki wrote the epic Rāmāyaṇa, called in full, Pūrva Rāmāyaṇa, he was approached by Brahmā, the creator of the world, to write a book that would free humans of worldly misery and make them eternally blissful. Thus was born the scripture known variously as Uttara Rāmāyaṇa, Mahārāmāyaṇa, Ārśa-Rāmāyaṇa, Jñānavāsişţha, Vasiṣṭharāmāyaṇa, more popularly called the Yogavāsiṣṭha.

Liberation for all

One striking feature of the Yogavāsiṣṭha is that its vision is secular. Furthermore, it does not believe in gender, race or caste discrimination. All that is required on the part of a seeker is to be a sincere and determined disciple. In fact, the main character of one of its longest stories is a queen named Cudālā. She not only acquires self-knowledge but also teaches her husband the means of acquiring it. The Yogavāsiṣṭha goes even further by showing that one need not be of high birth to attain self-knowledge: anyone can have it. It names people from lower castes and wild tribes, and gives instances where animals, too, become liberated. Even Śeşanāga, the deadly snake, is liberated, as is Kākabhuşuņda, the crow. This might sound far fetched, but the point being made here is that anyone can become blissful if they really wish to.

1. Pansikar, Vasudeva Laxmana Sharma (Ed.), Srimadvālmīkimahāŗşpraņītaĥ Yogavāsiṣṭhaḥ Vol I, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, p VII 
2. Atreya B. L., Yogavāsiṣṭha aur Uske Sidhdhant, Shri Krishna Janamsthan Seva Sansthan, Mathura 1986, p4; for comparative charts see pages
45-59, 67-69 of the same book. 
3. Yogavāsiṣṭha V:18:27
4. Yogavāsiṣṭha VIB:53:20
5. Yogavāsiṣṭha III:8:12
6. Yogavāsiṣṭha III:6:9 

The post Yogavasistha: An Encyclopedia of Advaita Vedanta appeared first on Hindu University of America.

As humanity goes through the tunnel of modernity, historicism and progressivism became the dominant way to approach our past and think about the future. In modernity, we are to experience time in terms of change and rupture over the flow of continuity. This is perhaps best expressed in our historical discourses, which bring in temporal registers like ancient, medieval and modern that tends to emphasize the break of ‘periods’ over continuity. History is usually regarded as the study of the past and many historians assume that they work on the past. But the way we perceive the past is dependent on how we look at the future. This is to say that even the future that we are referring to is ‘historical’1. Such a mode of inquiry about the past must be located as a construct of specific culture. Therefore, there is a need to locate the modern time regime as a construction of specific culture, provincializing it into a historical development of a specific period and space that we today call as ‘West’, rather than unmindfully considering it as a ‘universal’ ‘scientific’ paradigm.

To articulate the dominance and implications of the modern perception of time in our thinking is a very delicate and complex endeavor. With an intention to simplify this discourse, in this article, I have taken the aid of a popular metaphor or figure of thought in English to unpack the modern temporal regime, and how the ‘ancient’ (Hindu) thinking would look at the same.

‘Standing on the Shoulders of Giants’: A ‘Modern’ reflection of the Metaphor 

The age-old metaphor, ‘We stand on the shoulders of giants’ is a very prominent expression to show respect to the elders (past). To give a popular instance, Sir Isaac Newton in a letter to his friend writes, “If I have seen further, it is only because I have stood on the shoulders of giants.”2. One of the earliest known attributions to this metaphor is given to a 12th-century neoplatonist philosopher, Bernard of Chartres. Arguably, we see a transition in the usage of this metaphor from traditional (pre-Christian) to its modern form. Knowing this transition helps us to understand how the idea of ‘progress’ was viewed differently in ancient and secular modern (Christian?) ways of thinking.

Bishop of Chartres – John of Salisbury interprets the metaphor as, “We (the moderns) see more and further than our forebears did, not because we have better eyes or because we’re taller, but because we dwarfs are sitting on the shoulders of giants (the ancients).”3 In short, the interpretation tries to convey that we see more not because we are great but because our ancestors were giants. However, the underlying inference is that the dwarfs’ vision (modern) is much more far-reaching than that of the historical giants. In spite of their physical limitations, the dwarfs benefit from additional historical support from the past to view more of the present.

The famous depiction of this metaphor appears to be at Chartres Cathedral, where the four apostles of the New Testament are standing on the shoulders of four prophets of the Old Testament looking up at the Messiah.

These images suggest to  us how the people of the New Testament (Christians) who are modern to the people of the Old Testament (Jews) relate to each other. In this framework, the Old Testament forms the ground basis for a new world to emerge, which is also detached from its foundations. The New Testament surpasses the other and grows beyond it. It is worth noting that the Old Testament isn’t destroyed or rejected completely, but it is kept as having a pre-historic value, a necessary foundational step taken for the fulfillment of time. The Old Testament should stand as a monument for the New Testament to surpass, compare and contrast itself with. In other words, the register of ‘Old’ is maintained or preserved so that the ‘New’ could emerge and compare itself with, for its own self-positioning, and to measure how far it has seen better than the old one. The idea of the museum in modernity serves the same purpose of preserving what was destroyed. In the words of Bruno Latour, “Moderns are cut off from a past that is maintained in a state of artificial survival due only to historicism”.⁴

‘Standing on the Shoulders of Giants’: A Hindu (‘ancient?’) reflection of the Metaphor

From an ‘ancient’ perspective, this metaphor aptly reveres the past, for it is the foundation of the tradition (just as Hindus may regard Vyāsa and Śaṅkarācarya as being the giants of Hinduism). It is not in the sense that the dwarfs supersede and get a better vision than their ancestor giants because of an added linear, chronological support. The Hindu wisdom does not allow room for such an interpretation, arguably because the axiom of Time’s arrow prevalent both in Biblical themes and Modernity makes no sense to the Hindu view on reality. The modern interpretation of the metaphor suggests discovering a new truth by building or adding on previous discoveries or testaments. On the other hand, the Hindu view on inheritance and civilizational progress would have more emphasis on constant reflection of the existing knowledge over endless ‘additions’. This thought would require a bit more explanation to gain clarity.

For the Hindus, relearning the inherited knowledge doesn’t mean mere repetition of the same content. Rather, it is a new learning and application of knowledge to contemporary changes. While the traditional text inherited from the past stands as an everlasting normative reference point, each generation will have to locate it into their own actional framework and experience it, as these texts are designed in a way that they are timeless and could be applied to all relatable contexts.⁵ In simple words, it constantly trains us to become ‘contemporary’ rather than ‘modern’ or ‘ancient’.⁶

It could be misinterpreted that in the Hindu knowledge traditions, it was not encouraged to ask questions, critique, or disallow any ‘additions’. In other words, it is often classified as the Western notion of progress as ‘optimistic’ and the Indian notion of time as ‘pessimistic’, which does not plan for the future at all. But such an allegation can only emerge from the standpoint or assumption of a culture that completely marches ahead for ‘progress’, that cannot perceive change and continuity to be in harmony with each other. From an Indic way of thinking, it should not sound difficult to think about questioning the ancestors and yet revering them, as questioning itself is a part of the Hermeneutics of Śraddhā.⁷ In such a scenario, progress does not appear as a march towards a proposed utopian future; rather, progress seems to be about duties and responsibilities for contemporary times, which an individual and society accept by reflecting, contextualizing or expanding on what has been inherited. It is necessary to have a realistic understanding of the potential consequences of one’s present actions on the future in order to act responsibly. Thus the Karma Yoga lesson tries to tell us that fulfillment of action (time) is not dependent on the result (future event); on the other hand, its fulfillment lies in performing the action itself, by being in the present, detached from the results or future.⁸ It acknowledges the uncertain nature of the future, which cannot be determined before performing the action. This notion emphasizes the present actions instead of taking bearing from the future (results). This way, it stands quite different from the teleological narrative embedded in early modernity, which constantly marches towards ‘utopian ends’ (results), expecting an ideal future that is different from the present.⁹

Henceforth, the Hindu Hermeneutics of Śraddhā provides scope for inheriting from the past, allowing us to experience it in the present through experimenting, relating, contextualizing, regionalization, questioning and responding systematically. This riddle to re-learn that each individual and generation faces is what makes the tradition alive. From this standpoint, Vyāsa or Āḍi Śaṅkarācārya appear as ‘Giants’ not because they are foundational and took the ‘first step’ so that the succeeding masters could surpass them. The Hebrew Bible of the Jews, on the other hand, provides scope for an ‘addition’, as it takes its bearing from the future, anticipating the coming of the Messiah, which enables the ‘New’ to emerge from the foundation of an ‘Old’ in a linear, chronological ordering. From this standpoint, the ‘Giants’ are the ones who are to be surpassed because they are outdated but could be respected because they are ‘foundational’ or took the necessary first step.

As mentioned earlier, the different view of looking at the ‘Giants’ is related to a cultural difference between Hinduism and Semitic Religions/Secular Modernity. Being that said, though we may be able to interpret the metaphor and the ‘Giants’ (Past) in a Hindu way as mentioned above, the usage of the metaphor may not be acceptable for our cultural consciousness. Even with a Hindu understanding of what it means to be ‘Standing on the shoulders of Giants’, we may not prefer this metaphor to describe our reverence towards our Ṛṣis just because they don’t carry our cultural experience.

Though the metaphor ‘Standing on the shoulders of Giants’ could be interpreted positively by the Hindus (unlike the moderns), ‘Sitting at the feet of Giants’ remains a popular imagery of the Hindu traditions. This practical bodily action could better metaphorically convey the Hindu mode of reverence than the former. Here is an image of Swāmi Chinmayānanda, who sits at the feet of his Guru, Swāmi Tapovan Mahārāj, who in turn is sitting at an elevated position.

This gesture conveys that the disciple is receiving the knowledge from his Guru, sitting on a ground which indicates a locale which is contemporary. Whereas the Guru speaks from the past which is elevated, as past is our normative reference point from which we inherit knowledge and experience it by contextualizing from the ground or the present.

Om Tat Sat

References:

 1 ‘The past has had different possible futures’ is one of the key arguments that came about from Reinhart Koselleck’s work on history, in which he critiques the assumption that historians work on the past. Reinhart Koselleck, Future’s Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith Tribe (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).

2 See Robert King Merton, On the shoulders of Giants: A shandean Postscript, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985,p.1.

3 John of Salisbury, Metalogicon, Book III, Chapter 4. Cfr. Troyan, Scott D., Medieval Rhetoric: A Casebook, London, Routledge, 2004, p. 10.

4 Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern, Harvard University Press, 2012, p.133. 

5 As an example, The major interpretation of the Bhagavad Gītā that came about during the freedom struggle by Gandhi, Tilak contained an expansion from the traditional Gītā, a cognitive/evaluative frame to their actional frame of freedom struggle, for a direct experience of the Gītā. See for instance, Vivek Dhareshwar, ‘Framing the Predicament of Indian Thought: Gandhi, the Gita, and Ethical Action’, An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, 22:3, 257-274.

6 In the words of Latour, ‘Modernity’ is that which disables our ability to be ‘Contemporary’. See in, Latour, B. (2017). Anthropology at the Time of the Anthropocene: A Personal View of What Is to Be Studied. In: Brightman, M., Lewis, J. (eds) The Anthropology of Sustainability. Palgrave Studies in Anthropology of Sustainability. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56636-2_2

7 In fact, it is through constant questioning and argumentation that the Indian Knowledge Traditions have expanded themselves. See, Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. United Kingdom: Penguin Adult, 2006.

8 The verse; ‘Karmaṇyevādhikāraste mā phaleṣu kadācana, mā karmaphalaheturbhūrmā te saṅgo’ stvakarmaṇi’ Bhagavad Gītā 2.47. “Thy right is to work only [in the ‘present’], but never to its fruits [results in ‘future’]; let not the fruit of action be thy motive, nor let thy attachment be to inaction.” (Translation: Swāmi Chinmayānanda)

9  Peter Sloterdijk, Infinite Mobilization: Towards a Critique of Political Kinetics, trans, Sandra Berjan, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2020, pp.1-3.

The post A Metaphorical Exploration into the Ideas on Inheritance and Progress appeared first on Hindu University of America.

Śrī Vyāsa aspires to influence our view of the world, life in general, and of Self; by painting a more enriching narrative, through the poetical, layered narrative in Mahābhārata.

(Background: This blog is a reflection, or Mananam, triggered by Śrī Vishwa Adluri ji’s profound insights on the topic of Śrī Vyāsa’s ethical approach to storytelling.)

Reflecting upon Śrī Vyāsa’s Ethical Approach to Storytelling

I. Introduction: Prof. Adluri’s observation on Śrī Vyāsa’s ethical approach to storytelling.

Professor Śrī Vishwa Adluriji – a leading exponent and expert on the Mahābhārata, and my teacher of the HUA course on The Mahābharata War, made a remarkable observation, about how Śrī Vyāsa humanizes the Mahābhārata by virtue of his poetic, narrative approach. This poetic, narrative approach, laced with metaphors and similes and focused on the “specificity” with regards to individuals, is an ethical lens through which Śrī Vyāsa presents people, events, discussions and philosophical deliberations. If not for this “poetic-narrative” approach, the events of the past would be reduced to a set of events, compiled with scientific temper, but of no humanistic or spiritual value.

Professor Adluri’s viewpoint is that to describe inanimate objects, a dry scientific approach would suffice. But when it comes to talking about human beings, we need a narrative which enables us to understand and connect with the human condition (its glory, frailty, divinity, aspirations, emotions, etc). This is where poetry plays a significant role.

Poetry laced with similes and metaphors, preserves the distinctions at an individual level. The individual is more than just a line item in a large spreadsheet. Śrī Vyāsa spends adequate time with several characters, painting us a word picture of their character traits (say for example of Abhimanyu) as viewed from different standpoints – the standpoint of the father (e.g. Arjuna’s view of Abhimanyu), mother (e.g. Subhadra’s view of Abhimanyu), teacher (e.g. Śrī Kṛṣṇa’s view), and so on and so forth.

The ethical appraisal of Śrī Vyāsa’s project, namely the Mahābhārata, can be better understood if we understand the very philosophical basis of ethics, in light of Upaniṣadic wisdom. For this, I resort to Advaita Siddhanta’s interpretation of the Upaniṣad. This forms Section II of this blog post. Section III briefly touches upon the two main objectives of Śrī Vyāsa’s story telling (seen in light of Prof Adluri’s comments), knowing which, we may appreciate the purpose of the Mahābhārata, properly. Section IV summarizes the reflection.

II. Basis of Ethics: Upaniṣadic vision of Advaita.

ātmaivedam agra āsīt puruṣavidhaḥ, so’nuvīkṣya nānyad ātmano’paśyat, so’ham asmīty agre vyāharat; tato’haṁ nāmābhavat, tasmād apy etarhy āmantritaḥ; aham ayam ity evāgra uktvā, athānyan nāma prabrῡte yad asya bhavati.– 1.4.1 Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad

Translation: In the beginning, this (universe) was but the Self as Purusha. He reflected and found nothing else but himself. He first uttered, ”I am He”. Therefore, he was called Aham. Hence, to this day, when a person is addressed, he first says, ‘It is I,’ and then says the other name that he may have.

As the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Śruti above indicates, everyone—in essence—has their existence or Being, rooted in the One, Only and Original “I” or “Aham” — namely Brahman.

Advaita Siddhanta (through Śruti, Gīta, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavān Ādi Śaṅkara’s commentary) establishes beyond doubt that this “I,” or Aham or Sense of Being, is Brahman: The unqualified, attributeless, reality—indicated by words: Satyam (Absolute existence); Jñānam (Absolute knowledge); Anantam (Infinity) (Tai. Up Brahmadanda Valli).

We can infer on this Advaitic premise that the individual’s commitment to an ethical living is rooted in the individual’s essential identity with the world around him. I don’t become angry with myself, when I accidentally bite my own tongue. Similarly, my interaction with the people, the world around me, is grounded in my understanding and acceptance of the non-dual nature of Reality — a sense of Oneness.

To make this point about non-duality further, I quote another Śruti (Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad verse 7). According to this Śruti, my Being is revealed to be ekātmapratyayasāram (Self-evident Consciousness), prapancopaśamam (that into which the duality abides), śāntam (peace), śivam (auspiciousness), and advaitam (non-dual). The last word, Advaita, is the key.

This Oneness of Existence is the basis of Ethics, according to Advaita.

I am not implying that ethical living is possible only to the Jeevan Mukta, or the realized soul, to whom prapancopaśamam is an accomplished fact (i.e. He who sees everything is verily One). Such Jeevan Muktas are indeed rare, as Śrī Kṛṣṇa Himself acknowledges – vāsudevah sarvam iti sa mahātmaa sudurlabhah [Gīta 7.19].

What I am implying here is that even an intellectual understanding of this Advaitic truth or the vision of Oneness of existence, puts our ethical bearings on stable philosophical ground and helps evolve one’s ethical quotient.

The foremost exponent on this topic of Ethics and Advaita is Swami Vivekananda. Let us conclude this Section II with a quote from Swamiji.

“What is the watchword of all ethical codes? “Not I, but thou”, and this “I” is the outcome of the Infinite behind, trying to manifest Itself on the outside world. This little “I” is the result, and it will have to go back and join the Infinite, its own nature. Every time you say, “Not I, my brother, but thou”, you are trying to go back, and every time you say “I, and not thou”, you take the false step of trying to manifest the Infinite through the sense-world. That brings struggles and evils into the world, but after a time renunciation must come, eternal renunciation. The little “I” is dead and gone”

– Volume 2 – Jñāna Yoga talks / title: Realization

Now that I have made my point of how ethics is firmly rooted in Upaniṣadic wisdom (i.e. Advaita Siddhanta), we have to proceed to reflect upon Śrī Vyāsa’s narrative approach in the Mahābhārata.

III. Śrī Vyāsa’s Ethical Narrative Lens

The main purpose of Śruti (i.e. Upaniṣads), is to reveal to us the divine dimension of our Being and eventually help us transcend all duality and recognize our infinite non-dual nature.

So Śrī Vyāsa, as a teacher rooted in Śruti, is solely concerned with (a) ethical human upliftment, and (b) eventual self-transcendence (i.e. discovery of our infinite nature and thereby putting an end to suffering).

Hence, it becomes unavoidable for Śrī Vyāsa as the Itihāsa Kartā (composer of Itihaasa), to take up the events of the past and present them to us, through the poetic-narrative storytelling lens, to accomplish the aforesaid dual objectives.

If Śrī Vyāsa had gone about drafting the Mahābhārata like a modern-day historian or scientific chronicler, his presentation of facts of the past would be highly dehumanized (as Prof Adluri pointed out, in the class). So, empathy is the key here and the need for students of Mahābhārata to emotionally relate to the various characters; their respective thought process, choices and travails. This is where poetry, laced with similes and metaphors play a huge role.

At one level (Pravṛtti) Śrī Vyāsa helps us recognize the human condition borne out of Avidya (or Ignorance of our Infinite Dimension) and the consequent actions, choices and struggle for perfection. By doing so, he is being ethical in his treatment of the characters of the epics. —————> Important

At another level (Nivṛtti), he helps us recognize the changeless amidst the changeful (i.e. Self of the nature of pure consciousness), the Brahman of the Vedānta, the Vāsudeva of the Pañcharātra, the Paśupati of the Pāśupatas, etc. Thus, Śrī Vyāsa also shows the door to liberation. This way he is being ethical in his treatment of the student or the reader of the epic. —————> Important

Now both these dual objectives at Pravṛtti and Nivṛtti level can only be achieved, by offering a storytelling device; a narrative which is immersive and impactful on the reader.

Then and only then, will the study of Mahābhārata, be a transformative experience to the reader.

Human beings live in their own narrative; as to who they are, what this world around means to them (i.e. their relation with this world). Śrī Vyāsa aspires to influence their view of the world, life in general, and of Self; by painting a more enriching narrative, through the poetical, layered narrative in Mahābhārata.

Hence, resorting to poetry (which facilitates the emotional connection between the reader and the characters), and the layered narrative storytelling techniques (which operate on the reader at various psychological levels), becomes not only important but also necessary.

So the important thing to note, reflect upon, and eventually accept when it comes to the critical appraisal of Mahābhārata, is that even though the content of the narrative is based on events in the past, it is the narrative itself that has the dominant upper hand of influence upon the reader (rather than the historicity of the events).

Thus ensuring that we not only connect with our ancients, but also be guided by Upaniṣadic wisdom, to felicity. Śrī Vyāsa essentially de-hypnotizes us (who otherwise spend our life harboring the notions of our finite, limited individuality) thereby enabling us to eventually recognize our infinite dimension.

This dehypnotization project, viewed through the ethical narrative lens of Śrī Vyasa is called Mahābhārata.

If we don’t understand this psychology behind Śrī Vyāsa’s narrative lens, we end up oversimplifying Śrī Vyāsa’s presentation of Mahābhārata as being ONLY an Historical account – i.e. everything that is depicted is historical, or reject things in Mahābhārata that have no historical value (a very western notion of history centric thinking).

Such a limited view of Mahābhārata is gross injustice to not only the ancients – our human ancestors about whom we are studying, but also an injustice to humanity at large, which would otherwise be deprived of the Upaniṣadic wisdom and vision of Oneness.

To repeat the central theme of this blog post: By learning to appreciate the ethical narrative lens fitted by Śrī Vyāsa, (as Prof Adluri pointed out), we make the best out of our Mahābhārata study experience, whereby we learn about our ancients by empathetically connecting with them, and in the process, evolve as individuals and eventually transcend all limitations (including the individuality itself).

IV. Summary:

1. Prof Adluri’s point about the importance of ethical poetic narrative adopted by Śrī Vyāsa – laced with poetry (simile, metaphors), is key to understanding how we must view, study and thereby benefit from Mahābhārata.
2. This ethical lens prepared by Śrī Vyāsa, does justice to
   a) the characters in the epic (our ancients) by presenting them in humanistic light, with which we can relate and also learn from them 
   &
   b) also to the student of the epic – i.e. you, me, for whom this is a spiritually transformative experience.
3. The ethical narrative lens of Śrī Vyāsa has two components :
   a) Upaniṣadic wisdom (Advaita ~ which sets the basis for the practice of ethics, as discussed in Section II)
   &
   b) Immersive storytelling experience, delivered to us – via poetry, simile, metaphors – which essentially dehypnotizes us and offers us a narrative lens set by Śrī Vyāsa ! (as discussed in section III).
4. These two aspects, humanizes the events, reveals the concern for the individual – both in the text and the reader of the text. Thus Śrī Vyāsa, through his dehypnotization project (a.k.a Mahābhārata) is preparing and guiding me/you – the reader, to eventually transcend all limitations and achieve the summum bonum of life – Mokṣa.

This is the Key !

Cover Pic Credits: Creative Commons License. 

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