Dvaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita
Broadly speaking, the Advaita school sees the unity of Brahman, jīva, and jagat while the other two schools see Brahman separate from jīva and jagat. Let’s look at how we as average people understand the world (jagat) and Īśvara (Brahman, Lord, Kṛṣṇa, God, or identified by any similar name):

1. Each one of us experiences of daily life.

2. Each one of us – being a conscious being – is separate from each other.

3. Each one of us – being a conscious being – is separate from other non-living beings.

4. Each one of us feels that Īśvara (Brahman, Lord, Kṛṣṇa, God, or identified by any similar name) is different from us and

5. Many of us believe that Īśvara created every living, and non-living being in this world (samsāra) and if we worship/become devotees of the Īśvara, our sufferings will go away.

6. Many of us also believe that there is nothing called Īśvara and that whatever we see and experience in this life and world is the only reality.

7. We take actions (karma) based on our likes & dislikes which generates sukha-dukkha, paap-puṇya, and multiple births.

This is largely the state of dvaita. As average people and not enlightened beings, we see the bheda (difference) while living in this world all the time. Sri Madhvācārya’s Dvaita school systematizes the bheda and so does the Viśiṣṭādvaita of Sri Rāmāṉujācārya under special conditions. Sri Madhvācārya and Sri Rāmāṉujācārya both teach that Hari (Viṣṇu) is the ultimate reality – the Īśvara – who is all-powerful, present everywhere all the time. Hari is the Brahman and is responsible for the creation, existence, and destruction of everything including us. The only difference between Dvaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita is as follows: as per Dvaita the jīva (jīvātma as a precise Vedāntic technical word) is eternal, self-illuminating, and separate from Paramātma. Each living being has a Jīvātma which means there are many Jīvātma. Viśiṣṭādvaita differs from Dvaita here and it says Jīvātma is subservient and dependent on Paramātma. As per Viśiṣṭādvaita, before the jīva gets the physical body-mind and senses, jīvātma is in a sukṣma (subtle or causal) state. In this sukṣma state, jīvātma is with Brahman. There is no bheda between jīvātma and Brahman. Once the jīvātma gets the physical body-mind-senses, it gets into the sthula state. As physical bodies are distinct from each other and have separate minds of their own the bheda (dvaita) is visible and experienced. This is the reality that we all experience in the normal state of life. The path for the jīvātma to be close to Brahman (Hari)is complete devotion through bhakti. Since the jīvātma is subservient and dependent on Brahman (Hari) a total surrender is required. In other words, humans should seek the grace of Hari through bhakti. Depending on how the devotee is offering bhakti, Hari takes care of the jīvātma after its death. Jīvātma gets a place in Vaikuntha-Loka. This is the Mukti for Jeevātma in Viśiṣṭādvaita. In the Dvaita school, the separation between the jīvātma and Brahman (Hari) remains forever. During the living life of jīvātma, the jīvātma continues to offer bhakti to Hari and seeks Mukti.

Advaita

Advaita, however, is radical in its viewpoint. It states that the bheda or dvaita that is experienced by the jīva is real though that reality is transient. This reality is called mithyā. Mithyā in today’s Indian languages means illusion or something like a mirage. In the dark, one sees the snake but upon checking it in light, realizes that it is a rope. The snake is mithyā in today’s language. However, it is not a correct representation of mithyā from Advaita’s point of view. Advaita does not consider the perceived world as something unreal or imaginary. It differentiates between Satya and mithyā. Satya for Advaita is an unchanging reality and a reality that does not depend on anything else. Mithyā is that reality that depends on something else and hence undergoes change. Once this difference between Satya and mithyā is clear the separation becomes just an incorrect understanding of reality (Satya). If we see the gold bangles, gold chain, and gold ring, each of the ornaments is separate and has its own identity. However, from Advaita’s point of view, it is just gold. The waves on the water are distinct and are real, however, waves are forms of water. Just like a wave does not exist without water, ornaments cannot exist without gold, and pots are fundamentally just clay, the jagat and jīvātma are names and forms of the Brahman. Brahman in saguṇa form is Īśvara and in the context of Bhagavad Gita chapter 11 virāṭ-rūpa is Saguna Brahman in the form of Kṛṣṇa. The unity of all jīvas and jagat is Brahman. There is no bheda (no dvaita) and hence it is advaita. The reason the world appears in dvaita is because of avidyā. Avidyā is an incorrect understanding of the human thinking that he or she is separate from the Brahman. With Jñāna (knowledge), one can realize the true nature of reality, Sat-Cit-Ānanda Ātman, and achieve Mukti. To achieve this jñāna, one needs to prepare the mind through viveka and exercising karma-yoga. This karma-yoga needs bhakti as a foundation. The more one practices karma-yoga by applying viveka in one’s life, one becomes more ardent bhakta of Īśvara.

Dvaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita are about the separation of jīva, jagat, and Īśvara. Īśvara being the all-powerful and creator, conserver, and destroyer of jīva and jagat, jīva must surrender through bhakti to seek Mukti which is a grace of Īśvara.

Advaita does not recognize the separation of jīva, jagat, and Īśvara. A bhakti-based viveka exercised through karma-yoga prepares the mind and jñāna is realized in such a mind. This realization delivers the Mukti in living the life of jīva. Such a Jīvanmukta continues to live life as per the prārabdha and once the physical body-mind-senses merge into the  five elements after death, the sukṣma śarīra is merged into Īśvara.

How do we reconcile the Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita schools having apparently contradictory, opposing views of the same Upaniṣad?

देहबुद्ध्या तु दासोऽस्मि, जीवबुद्ध्या त्वदंशकः। आत्मबुद्ध्या त्वमेवाहं इति मे निश्चिता मतिः।। “Oh Lord, while I identify myself with my body, I am your servant. When I consider myself as Individual Soul, I am Your part. But when I look upon myself as the Spirit, I am one with You.”

I feel this one verse reconciles the 3 schools of Vedānta for average Hindu persons like us. All the differences in the philosophy of each school in terms of how each Ācārya has interpreted the Upaniṣad and Bhagavad Gītā are important from the deep study of each of the schools. The scriptural textual analysis and their methods of finding support in Upaniṣad and Bhagavad Gītā must be studied to gain a deeper intellectual understanding. It is not that this study is not for the average devotee. However, what matters to the average devotee is the sādhanā – the daily practice – that will pave the path of his or her Mukti. All three ācāryas’ teachings have the following common aspects:

1. Īśvara is an all-pervasive, all-powerful, creator-conserver-destroyer of everything.
2. Bhakti is mandatory.
3. Mukti – freedom from suffering – is the goal of human life.

Despite this, how do we reconcile the apparent differences in the views of these 3 schools? I feel if we keep studying each philosophical detail of every school to compare then reconciliation is difficult. The common factors across all the 3 schools don’t yield much apart from the academic and intellectual exercise. I suggest that the 3 schools are a continuation of Vedantic thought. This continuation is evolving to explore various facets of Vedānta to simplify Hinduism for the average Hindu. Now the question is what we mean by simplification of Hinduism. Kṛṣṇa says in Bhagavad Gītā in 4.13 about गुणकर्मविभागशः – meaning He has created each person depending on their guṇas (sattva, rajas, tamas) and prārabdha karma. As he says in 2.47 about कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते means – one has the right to choose their karma (action) – free will to choose the actions. So, every person has predisposed guṇas and prārabdha but has free will to chart the course of life. It also means that every person has a different state of mind as a result of the combination of guṇas, prārabdha karma, and free will. Hence each person’s state of mind to be prepared to seek Mukti is different. Someone may see bheda and start the journey or someone may start with the belief that there is a unity of Self with Īśvara, or someone may start with seeing bheda but believing in unity with Īśvara. Finally, it is about the evolution of the understanding of the mind where it may start with Dvaita to Advaita or from Advaita to Dvaita or from Viśiṣṭādvaita to Advaita or Dvaita.

Advaita focuses on achieving freedom from suffering in this living life (Mokṣa). It is a path having bhakti and dhyāna at the foundation to lead a life with karmayoga which purifies the mind, and, in such a mind, “Tat Tvam Asi” is realized. Dvaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita focus on the “Sādhanā” of complete devotion – bhakti and belief that in the afterlife Hari will grace the Jīvātma with a place near him. The place that the Jīvātma gets depends on the level of devotion.

Krisha in 18.62 says तमेव शरणं गच्छ सर्वभावेन भारत। तत्प्रसादात्परां शान्तिं स्थानं प्राप्स्यसि शाश्वतम्‌| – “Take refuge in Him alone with your whole being, O scion of the Bhārata dynasty. Through His grace, you will attain supreme Peace and the eternal Abode.” And in 18.63 इति ते ज्ञानमाख्यातं गुह्याद्गुह्यतरं मया। विमृश्यैतदशेषेण यथेच्छसि तथा कुरु| – “To you has been imparted by Me this knowledge [Derived in the instrumental sense of ‘means of knowledge’; i.e., the scripture Gita.] which is more secret than any secret. Pondering over this, do as you like.”

Bibliography

Chari Srinivasa S. M., The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgita. A Study Based on the Evolution of the Commentaries of Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva. New Dedlhi: Munshilala Manoharlal Publisher Pvt. Ltd., 2005.

Dutt, M. N., trans. Mahābhārata – Sanskrit Text with English Translation. 9 vols. Edited by Dr. Ishvar Chandra Sharma and Dr. O. N. Bimali. Delhi: Parimal Publications, 2018.

Radhakrishnanan S., The Bhagavadagita With and Introductory Essay, Sanskrit Text, English Translation and Notes. Noida: Harper Element, 2014.

Swami Gambhīrānanda, trans. Bhagavad Gita : With the commentary of Sankarācārya. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, 2018.

Swami Gambhīrānanda. Trans. Eight Upaniṣads: With the commentary of Sankarācārya. 2 vols. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, 2019.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Bhagavad Gita Home Study Course. 9 vols. Chennai: Arsha Vidya Research and Publication Trust, 2012.

The post Samanvaya Across 3 Vedanta Schools – Part 2 appeared first on Hindu University of America.

Samanvaya (Reconciliation) of Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, and Dvaita

Vedānta is the corpus of knowledge at the end of the Vedas. These are the Upaniṣad. These are the core texts capturing revelations by Ṛṣis. Bhagavad Gītā as part of Mahābhārata is the second important text to put the Upanishadic knowledge in the context of human life. The Brahma Sūtra written by sage Bādārayaṇa summarizes the teachings of Vedānta in the form of short statements. Upaniṣad, Bhagavad Gītā, and Brahma Sūtra are called “Prasthānatrayī” – the trinity of Hindu thought. Various ācāryas have been writing the interpretations of the Upaniṣad, Bhagavad Gītā, and Brahma Sūtra giving rise to multiple schools of Vedānta. Upanishadic thought means the relationship of jīva (living beings), jagat (the physical world around the living beings – matter), and Īśvara (Sat-Cit-Ānanda Ātman) with each other. For these three entities (jīva, jagat, Īśvara) various possibilities of relationships emerge. Out of those, the following 3 are the most prominent-

1. Jīva, jagat, and Īśvara as being one (abheda) – nondual or Advaita.
2. Jīva, jagat, and Īśvara are fundamentally different and do not merge into each other (bheda)– dual or Dvaita.
3. Jīva, jagat, and Īśvara being one under specific conditions and being different under specific conditions – Viśiṣṭādvaita.

Sri Śaṅkarācārya (8^th century) is the most prominent proponent of Advaita. Sri Rāmāṉujācārya (11^th century) was for Viśiṣṭādvaita and Sri Madhvācārya (13^th century) was the proponent of Dvaita. Each of them humbly says that they are merely interpreting the Vedānta and Bhagavad Gītā and not the founders of each school. As per them, their view is firmly established in Vedānta and supported by Bhagavad Gītā. If we look at the core principles of each of the schools, it feels that each school is showing a new path different from each other. Our common experience is that Hindus subscribe to these schools and vehemently ground themselves in their schools. Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, and Śakta Saṃpradāya worship Śiva, Viṣṇu or Kṛṣṇa, and Goddess Śakti respectively in various forms. It means each of the forms for their Saṃpradāyas is the ultimate form of truth.

A historical perspective shows that Viśiṣṭādvaita came out as a critic of Advaita and later Dvaita came out as a critic of both Advaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita. This gives a view that the three schools of Vedānta have so many differences that it is not possible to reconcile those as consistent with one another.

After understanding the core tenets of each school and considering that Advaita came first, followed by Viśiṣṭādvaita and then Dvaita, I feel that each of the schools of Vedānta is a continuation of the same thought of achieving Muktī – freedom from suffering and freedom from the cycle of rebirth. Each ācārya guides us to take the path that they propounded in the light of the Upaniṣad and Bhagavad Gītā (only Sri Śaṅkarācārya wrote a commentary on Brahma Sūtra).

Evolution of Vedic Thought

The early Upaniṣads were revealed to ṛṣis and were written 7,000 years ago. The original Vedic thought originated at least 1,000 to 1,500 years before the Upaniṣads. The original Vedic thought worshiped Indra, Varuṇa, Soma, and other devatas of nature. Various rituals and sacrifices were at the core of the Vedic life and were meant to deliver a happy and prosperous life in terms of progeny and wealth during life and svarga (after life). Slowly Vedic thought evolved beyond the rituals and sacrifices. Vedic thought evolved to describe

the limits of the rituals and sacrifices to achieve truth and peace – the Sat-Cit-Ānanda Ātman. Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 1.2.12 says –

परीक्ष्य लोकान् कर्मचितान् ब्रह्मणो निर्वेदमायान्नास्त्यकृतः कृतेन ।

तद्विज्ञानार्थं स गुरुमेवाभिगच्छेत् समित्पाणिः श्रोत्रियं ब्रह्मनिष्ठम् ॥ १२ ॥

A mature human being (in worldly affairs) resorts to renunciation after examining the worlds, acquired through karma, with the help of this maxim: the uncreated (eternal/reality) is not accomplished by karma. For knowing that reality he should go to the Guru with samidhā in hand.

It is a common experience of any mature person who has some experience of the world, that any amount of fulfillment of desires does not generate a lasting peace and freedom from suffering. The desires keep changing and new desires keep developing. So, in such situations, the mature person surrenders to the Guru who is well-versed in Brahmavidyā. This Upanishadic thought did not hinder the rituals and sacrifices but provided a new meaning of Mukti. Now it was no longer related to going to svarga by practicing sacrifices but freedom from suffering in human life and freedom from the cycle of birth-growth-death. Taittirīya Upaniṣad (Brahmānanda Vallī) 2.1.1 says- ब्रह्मविदाप्नोति परम् । तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता । सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । यो वेद निहितं गुहायां परमे व्योमन्‌। सोऽश्नुते सर्वान्‌ कामान् सह ब्रह्मणा विपश्चितेति॥ The knower of Brahman attains the highest. Here is the verse about that very fact: “Brahman is satya, jñāna and ananda. He who knows that Brahman as existing in the intellect, lodged in the supreme space in the heart, enjoys, as identified with the all-knowing Brahman, all desirable things simultaneously.” Here Vedānta reveals that path of freedom from suffering in human life while continuing to follow worldly engagements. The human needs to understand his or her connection with the physical world, other living beings, and the ultimate truth – Brahman. Various Upaniṣads provide different models of the origin of jagat (physical world), jīva (all living creatures), and Brahman.  Chāndogyopaniṣad in 6.2.3 describes बहु स्यां प्रजायेयेति – It (Being, or Brahman) thought: ‘May I be many; may I grow forth.’ So, Brahman had a thought and it decided to become many and from there, the origin of jagat and jīva started.  This is like Nāsadīya Sūkta (Ṛgveda 10.129) कामस्तदग्रे समवर्तताधि मनसो रेतः प्रथमं यदासीत्। – “In the beginning, desire descended on It (Brahman), that was the primal seed, born of the mind.” Brahman had a desire to create the jagat and jīva. This desire can be termed as māyā the Śakti that created everything including time and space. This is explained in Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad in 1.1.7 as – यथोर्णनाभिः सृजते गृह्णते च यथा पृथिव्यामोषधयः संभवन्ति। यथा सतः पुरुषात्‌ केशलोमानि तथाऽक्षरात्‌ संभवतीह विश्वम्‌ ॥ “As the spider puts out and gathers in, as herbs spring up upon the earth, as hair of head and body grow from a living man, so here all is born from the Immutable (i.e., Brahman).” In summary, Vedānta through various Upaniṣads reveal the connection between the physical world (jagat), living beings (jīva), and Īśvara (Brahman). Now comes the Bhagavad Gītā. Ācārya Madhusudana Saraswati praises Bhagavad Gītā in his Gītā dhyānam – सर्वोपनिषदो गावो दोग्धा गोपालनन्दनः| पार्थो वत्सः सुधीर्भोक्ता दुग्धं गीतामृतं महत्|| “All the Upaniṣads are the cows and Kṛṣṇa is the one who milks them. Arjuna is the calf; the devotees are the consumers of the great nectar of Gita.”. Bhagavad Gītā provides a systematic path to understanding the Upaniṣads and implementing the revelations of the Upaniṣads in the daily life of devotees to free oneself from suffering. Kṛṣṇa – the Īśvara – incarnation of Brahman – says following ते तं भुक्त्वा स्वर्गलोकं विशालं क्षीणे पुण्ये मर्त्यलोकं विशन्ति । एवं त्रयीधर्ममनुप्रपन्ना गतागतं कामकामा लभन्ते ॥ ९-२१ ॥ “After having enjoyed that vast svargaloka, their puṇya is exhausted, and they re-enter into martyalokam (human world). Thus, those who follow the rituals and sacrifices prescribed in the three Vedas – merely the Vedic rites and duties; are desirous of pleasures. They attain only the state of going and returning (from svarga to this world – rebirth cycle), but never that of mokṣa.” In 5.29 Kṛṣṇa says – भोक्तारं यज्ञतपसां सर्वलोकमहेश्वरम्। सुहृदं सर्वभूतानां ज्ञात्वा मां शान्तिमृच्छति।।5.29।। “One attains Peace by knowing Me who, as the great Lord of all the worlds, am the enjoyer of sacrifices and austerities, (and) who am the friend of all creatures.” With multiple such references across Bhagavad Gītā, it becomes clear that Kṛṣṇa provides clarity on Mukti. If one follows the Vedic rituals and sacrifices, one will reach svargaloka but will eventually have to reenter jagat. If one worships Kṛṣṇa, one will attain peace – peace from cycles of birth, growth, death, and suffering. In other words, this reflects the entire Vedic teaching. The Pūrva Bhāg of Veda (Mīmāṃsā) deals with the rituals and sacrifices that take one to svarga and the evolution of Vedic thought through Upaniṣads provides the path of true happiness – Sat-Cit-Ānanda. So, are these 2 separate paths for the devotees? The answer is no. The path that the devotee takes depends on his or her readiness of mind through three Guṇas (satva, rajas, tamas) and free will – the choice of actions one wants to exercise while choosing the path. Now with this background, we can go back to the three ācāryas.

Vedānta Schools: Sri Śaṅkarācārya, Sri Rāmāṉujācārya, and Sri Madhvācārya

Note that none of the Ācārya says that they are teaching their “school”, but they say that they are teaching Vedānta. It becomes puzzling and unsettling to know that each of the Ācāryas has interpreted the same Upaniṣad and Bhagavad Gita differently in many aspects while having few commonalities.

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